
Class 
Book 



Ti- 




-^ 



Copyright IJ?. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

ENGINEEEING 



WITH isroTES oisr 

CONSTRUCTION 



BY>, 



ff^ 



WILLIAM H. SELLEW, A.S.M.E. 

Author, " Steel Bails, their History, P)'operties, Strength and Manufacture''^ 

Xon-resident Lecturer on Railway Engineering, TIniversity of Michigan 

Member American Railway Bridge and Building Association 

Member Am^erican Railwa,y Engineering Association 



194 ILLUSTRATIONS 
SIX FOLDING PLATES 




NEW YORK 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

25 Park Place 
1915 






\\. 



Copyright, 1915, 

BY 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 



f 



THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS 
ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANY 

BROOKLYN. N. Y. 



#^ 



©CU,416551 



PREFACE 



The book has been prepared from notes used by the author 
in his classes in Railway Engineering at the University of Michi- 
gan. While it has been written to present the subject from the 
view point of the student, an endeavor has been made to introduce 
matter of a sufficiently advanced character to make the book of 
value outside the classroom. 

The question of major bridges has not been dealt with, as it was 
felt that this would be beyond the scope of the work and that it 
was a subject requiring special treatment. The same is true of 
yards and terminals, which are so fully covered by Mr. Droege's 
recent book that a general discussion here would be of little value 
to the student. Signaling has been touched upon, but the chapter 
on this subject is not exhaustive and is intended only to give a 
general knowledge of the work in this field. Very little cost data 
has been given, as apparently the studies now nearing completion 
in connection with the Federal valuation of the roads will consti- 
tute the best information to be obtained on this subject. The 
arrangement of chapters in the book follows the classification of 
investment accounts of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and 
no difficulty will be experienced in applying these unit costs to the 
present work. - 

As indicated in the title, the work is confined principally to 
maintenance. Railway development in this country has reached a 
stage where it is intensive rather than extensive, and the young 
engineer is probably more concerned with the study of the improve- 
ment of existing fines than the laying out of new roads. It 
should be observed that this field offers problems fully as important 

ill 



iv PREFACE 

as those connected with the construction of the railway. The 
development of the permanent way on American railways in the 
past has been mainly along empirical lines. At the present time, 
however, owing to the heavy wheel loads employed, the track is 
much more severely taxed than was formerly the case, and the 
need for more scientific methods is being felt. This may be said, 
in a measure, of other departments, and the trend of modem 
thought is distinctly in the direction of a more careful analysis 
of the results obtained in this service than was formerly generally 
supposed necessary. 

The author has much pleasure in expressing his appreciation of 
the assistance given to him. He has endeavored to acknowledge 
this in each case throughout the book, and if he has been remiss in 
this respect it has been unintentional. He is much indebted to 
Professor A. R. Bailey for an examination of the manuscript and 
proofs. The proceedings of the American Railwa}^ Engineering 
Association and of the American Railway Bridge and Building 
Association have been freely quoted from and considerable 
material, in the preparation of the article on this subject, has 
been taken from the book ^^ Electric Interlocking,'^ written by the 
engineers on the staff of the General Railway Signal Company. 

William H. Sellew^ 

Michigan Central Station, 
Detroit, Michigan, 
May, 1915. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter I 

ENGINEERING 

1. Reconnaissance and Exploration Surveys, 1. 2. Location, 7. 
3. Construction, 10. 4. Estimation of Quantities, 13. 5. Curves and 
Spirals, 16. Bibliography, 21. 

Chapter II 

LAND 

6. Basic Divisions of Land, 23. Writing Descriptions of Property to 
be Acquired. 7. United States Surveys, 26. 8. Irregularly Surveyed Land, 
29. 9. Additional Widths, 30. 10. City Property, Town Lots, 32. Writing 
Descriptions of Property to be Leased. 11. First Class, 34. 12. Second 
Class, 34. 13. Third Class, 34. 14. Purchase of Land, 36. Bibliog- 
raphy, 38. 

Chapter III 

GRADING 

15. Sections, 39. 16. Drainage, 41. 17, Construction of the Road- 
bed, 45. 18. Construction Contract, 53. 19. Bearing Power of the 
Sub-grade, 54. Bibliography, 59. 

Chapter IV 

BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS 

20. Masonry Culverts, 60. 21. Pile and Frame Trestles, 60. 22. 
Concrete Trestles, 64. 23. Pipe Culverts, 65. 24. Waterway, 67. 
Bibliography, 70. 

V 



vi CONTENTS 

Chapter V 

TIES 

25. Forms of, 72. 26, Metal Ties, 74. 27. Concrete Ties, 75. Wood 
Ties. 28. Production of, 77. 29. Specifications, 80. 30. Available Woods, 
85. 31. Conservation of the Timber Supply, 88. Tie Preservation. 
32. General, 89. 33. Creosote Process, 91. 34. Zinc Chloride Process, 96. 
35. Strength of, 96. Bibliography, 99. 

Chapter VI 

RAILS 

Sections. 36. Early, 102. 37. Present, 104. 38. Foreign, 108. 39. 
Weight, 108. 40. Stresses, 111. Manufacture. 41. The Blast Furnace. 
117. 42. Bessemer Process, 119. 43. Open-hearth Process, 121. 44. Duplex- 
ing, 123. 45. The Ingot, 123. 46. Rolling, 126. Chemical Composition. 
47. Effect of Different Elements, 130. 48. Of Early Rails, 131. 49. Present 
Practice, 132. 50. Special, 132. 51. Specifications, 133. 52. Lengths, 
134. 53. Rail Failures, 135. Bibliography, 136. 

Chapter VII 

OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 

Turnouts. 54. Switches, 138. 55. Frogs, 142. 56. Derails, 147. 
57. Crossings, 150. 58. Joints, 152. 59. Bolts, 159. 60. Nut Locks, 
160. 61. Spikes, 161. 62. Tie Plates, 163. 63. Anti-Creepers, 166. 
64. Bumping Posts, 167. Bibliography, 169. 

Chapter VIII 

BALLAST 

Kinds of. 65. For First-class Track, 172. 66. For Branch Lines, 173. 
67. Sub-Ballast, 174. 68. Sections, 174. 69. Specifications, 176. 70. 
Physical Tests, 176. 71. Cleaning, 178. 72. Handling and Distribu- 
ting, 179. 73. Distribution of Pressure through, 179. Bibliography, 
190. 

Chapter IX 

MAINTAINING TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 

74. Track Laying, 192. 75. Surfacing, 195. 76. Right of Way 
Fences, 201. 77. Snow and Sand Fences, and Snow Sheds 206. 78. 



CONTENTS vii 

Crossings, 209. 79. Signs, 211. 80. Roadway Small Tools, 214. 81. 
Section Work, 216. 82. Fires on Right of Way, 223. Bibliography, 
225. 

Chapter X 

STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS 

83. Local Stations, 227. 84. Terminal Passenger Stations, 231. 
85. Terminal Freight Stations, 233. 86. Track Scales, 236. 87. Road- 
way Buildings, 238. Bibliography, 242. 



Chapter XI 

WATER STATIONS 

88. Pumping, 243. 89. Tanks, 247. 90. Stand-pipes, 249. 91. Track 
Tanks, 254. 92. Water-treating Plants, 257. Bibliography, 259. 

Chapter XII 

FUEL STATIONS 

93. Platforms, 260. 94. Docks, 260. 95. Clam Shells, 262. 96. 
Mechanical Plants, 262. 97. Storage of Coal, 266. Bibliography. 
270. 

Chapter XIII 

SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 

98. Round Houses, 271. 99. Heating Plants, 274. 100. Turn- 
tables, 276. 101. Cinder Pits, 278. 102. Sand Houses, 280. 103. 
Shops, 281. Bibliography, 284. 

Chapter XIV 

ICING STATIONS 

104. Harvesting Natural Ice, 285. 105. Manufacture of Ice, 288. 
106. Insulation, 289. 107. Buildings for Storing Ice, 298. 108. De- 
livering Ice to Cars, 308. Bibliography, 311. 



viii CONTENTS 

Chapter XV 

SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 

109. Essentials of Signaling, 312. 110. Train Order and Manual 
Block Signals, 317. Automatic Block. 111. General, 318. 112. Track 
Circuits J 321. 113. Signals, 323. 114. Mechanical Interlockers, 326. 
Power Interlockers. 115. Electro-Pneumatic, 335. 116. Electric, 339. 
Bibliography, 350. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PACE 

Chapter I. ENGINEERING 1 

FIG. 

1. U. S. Geological Survey Map 2 

2. Reconnaissance Map of Saluda Hill, Southern Railway 3 

3. Photograph by Canadian Survey and used in Map Construction. . 6 

4. Projection of Camera Plates from a Station 6 

5. Projection of Camera Plates, Elevations 7 

6. Map of Line in Broken Country 9 

7. Revision of Line 10 

8. View of Line shown in Fig. 7 11 

9. Construction Profile 12 

10. Cross-Section Notes 15 

11. Cross-Section Note Book used in Federal Valuation 17 

12. Elevation of Outer Rail on Curves 18 



Chapter II. LAND 23 

13. United States Surveys, on Surveyed Lines 27 

14. United States Surveys, Tracts of Land 28 

15. United States Surveys, Strips along Existing Tracts 28 

16. Irregular Surveyed Land 29 

17. Additional Widths, Regular 31 

18. Additional Widths, Trapezoidal or Irregular 31 

19. City Property. Lot or Even Part of Lot 33 

20. City Property. Right of Way Cutting across Lots 33 

21 . Leases 35 



Chapter III. GRADING 39 

22. Four-Track Roadway, Pennsylvania Railroad 40 

23. American Railway Ditcher 42 

24. Cost of Handling Material with Double-ditcher Train 43 

25. Grading with Wheel Scrapers 46 

ix 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

26. Western Wheel Scraper 46 

27. Western Slip or Drag Scraper 47 

28. Western Elevating Grader 48 

29. 70 C. Buc>Tus Steam Shovel 48 

30. Marion Steam Shovel in a Through Cut 49 

31. Steam Shovel Widening Cut 50 

32. Steam Shovel Lowering Cut 50 

33. Left-hand Side Plow at Work on the Erie Railroad 51 

34. 12-yard Western Air-dump Cars Filling Trestle 52 

35. Mann-McCann Spreader 53 

36. Resistance of Sub-grade to Pressure of the Track 56 

Chapter IV. BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS... 60 

37. Reinforced Concrete Arch Culverts, Pennsylvania Railroad 60 

38. Kilton Culvert, North Eastern Railway 61 

39. Standard Trestle, Pennsylvania Railroad 63 

40. Concrete Trestle 64 

41. Corrugated Metal Culverts: 

A. Transporting by Teams 66 

B. 60-in. Culvert on the Western Pacific 66 

42. Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe 67 

43. Field Observations Necessary for Determining Size of Waterways. . 68 

Chapter V. TIES 72 

44. Lindenthal's Longitudinal Method of Rail Support 73 

45. Carnegie Steel Tie 75 

46. Track Laid with Steel Ties 76 

47. Kimbal Tie 77 

48. Atwood Tie 78 

49. Pole Tie 79 

50. Ties for No. 11 Turnout 85 

51. Piling Ties 86 

52. Treated Ties in the United States 91 

53. One-cylinder Creosoting Plant 93 

54. Railroad Tie Car 94 

55. Absorption of Different Tie Timbers 95 

Chapter VI. RAILS 102 

56. Pear-headed Rail 104 

57. A. S. C. E. Rail Section, 100 lbs. per yard 104 

58. A. R. A. Type A Rail Section, 100 lbs. per yard 105 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi 

FIG. PAGE 

59. A. R. A. Type B Rail Section, 100 lbs. per yard 105 

60. R. E. Rail Section, 100 lbs. per yard 108 

61. P. S. Rail Section, 100 lbs. per yard 108 

62. Dudley Rail Section, 105 lbs. per yard 109 

63. British Standard Railway Rails: 

A. Flat Bottom " B.S." Section, No. 100, 100 lbs. per yard 110 

B. Bull Head, " B.S." Section No. 100, 100 lbs. per yard 110 

64. Compression Moduli 112 

65. Relation between Areas of Contact and Load on Wheel. 113 

66. Rail Stresses, U. S. Government Tests, C, B. & Q. R. R 114 

67. Rail Stresses, Stremmatograph Tests 115 

68. Sectional View of Hazelton Blast Furnace, No. 4 118 

69. Bessemer Converter in Full Blast 120 

70. Tons of Rail Rolled, 1850-1913 121 

71. Teeming Ingots at Open-hearth Furnace 122 

72. Formation of Pipe in Ingot 124 

73. Sections of Ingots: 

A. Hadfield Ingot 125 

B. Piped Ingot 125 

74. Sections from Bloom to Finished Rail 127 

75. Pass Diagram, Rail Mill, Illinois Steel Company, South Works. . . . 129 

76. Head Sweep 129 



Chapter VII. OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 138 

77. Switch, Pennsylvania Railroad 138 

78. " Economy " Switch Point 139 

79. Wharton Switch 140 

80. Switch Stands: 

A. Lever operated 141 

B. Gear operated 141 

C. Cam operated 141 

81. Frogs: 

A. Rigid Frog 143 

B. Spring Frog 143 

C. Hard-center Rigid Frog 143 

82. Plain Guard Rail: 

A . " Safety " Foot Guard 144 

B. Wharton Clamp 144 

83. Ajax Manganese Guard Rail 145 

84. Diagram of Turnout 146 

85. Definition of Frog Number 146 

86. Hayes Derail 150 

87. Wharton Movable-point Frogs 150 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIO. PAGE 

88. Hard-center Croosiag 151 

89. Joints Tested at Watertown Arsenal 152 

90. Base-supported Joints 153 

91. Diagram of Watertown Arsenal Tests on Joints 154 

92. Shearing Stress in 100-lb. A. S. C. E. Rail and Angle Bar 157 

93. Insulated Joints: 

A. Insulated Angle Bar 158 

B. Tests of 158 

94. Track Bolts 159 

95. Nut Locks 160 

96. Common Spikes 162 

97. Screw Spike 162 

98. Tie Plates: 

A. McKee 164 

B. Wolhaupter 164 

C. Goldie 164 

D. Clary 164 

E. SeUers 164 

F. P. & L. E 164 

99. Wear of Tie under Tie Plate 165 

100. Anti-Creepers: 

A. P. andM..: 167 

B. Vaughan 167 

101. P. M. Anti-Creepers, Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal Co., 

New York 168 

102. Bumping Posts and Wheel Stop: 

A. EUis 169 

B. Buda 169 

C. Hercules 170 

D. Saunders' Wheel Stop 170 



Chapter VHI. BALLAST 172 

103. Composite Drawing of Various Ballast Sections 175 

104. Page Impact Testing Machine 177 

105. Unloading Ballast: 

A. Unloading from Sides 180 

B. Center Dumping 180 

C. Plow Car 180 

106. Schubert's Test on Distribution of Pressure through Ballast: 

A. Six Inches of Sand and SLx Inches of Gravel 182 

B. Six Inches of Sand and Six Inches of Stone 182 

C. Stone with Thin Layer of Sand 182 

D. Stone Resting on Clay Sub-grade 182 

107. Effect of L'nequal Distribution of Tie Pressure on Sub-grade 183 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 

FIG. PAGE 

108. Distribution of Pressure to Sub-grade 184 

109. Altoona Tests on Distribution of Pressure through Ballast: 

A. First Test, Box No. 3 187 

B. Second Test, Box No. 2 187 

110. Moyer's Tests on Distribution of Pressure through Sand 189 

Chapter IX. MAINTAINING TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 192 

111. Expansion Shim 192 

112. Laying Track with American Ditcher 194 

113. Cuenot's Tests on Distribution of Tamping under Tie 197 

114. Depression of Ballast. Government Rail Tests 198 

115. Woven Wire Right of Way Fence 201 

116. Wing Fence and Apron 201 

117. Reinforced Concrete Fence Posts 206 

118. Cattle Guards: 

A. Modified Type of Pit Guard 207 

B. Types of Surface Guards 208 

119. Rotary Snow Plow: 

A. American Locomotive Co. Plow 210 

B. Plow without Housing 210 

C. Rotary at Work on a Heavy Grade in Deep Snow 210 

120. Crossing Gates: 

A. Double Cyhnder Pneumatic Gate 212 

B. Electric Gate 212 

C. Manually Operated Gate 212 

121. Crossing Signs, Pennsylvania Railroad 213 

122. Track Tools: 

A. Claw Bar 215 

B. Lining Bar 215 

C. Track Gauge 215 

D. Tamping Bar 215 

E. Tie Tongs 215 

F. Adze 215 

G. Rail Tongs 215 

H, Track Chisel. 215 

/. Tamping Pick 215 

J. Track Wrench ' 215 

K. Spike Maul 215 

123. Track Tools: 

A. Track Level 217 

B. Step Level Board 217 

C. Track Drill 217 

D. Track Jack 217 

E. Rail Bender 217 



xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

124. Gasoline Section Motor Car , 222 

125. Spark Arrester 224 

Chapter X. STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS ... 227 

126. Combination Freight and Passenger Station 227 

127. Mail Crane 228 

128. Station Layouts: 

A. Small Towns 229 

B. Larger Towns 229 

129. Local Passenger Stations on the A., T. & Santa Fe Ry.: 

A. Brick Station at Holly, Col 230 

B. Concrete Station at Ponca City, Okla 230 

130. Passenger Terminals: 

A. Pennsylvania Railroad, New York 232 

B. Union Station, Washington 232 

C. Chicago and North Western, Chicago 232 

131. Bush Train Shed 233 

132. Soo Line Freight Terminal, Chicago 235 

133. Track Scales: 

A . Bessemer and Lake Erie R.R 236 

B. Diagram of 236 

134. Roadway Buildings: 

A. Section Tool House 238 

B. Store House 239 

C. Oil House 240 



Chapter XL WATER STATIONS 243 

135. Combined Gasoline Pumper 244 

136. Geared Base Engine Operating Deep-well Pump 244 

137. Water Tanks: 

A. Wood Tank, Steel Sub-Structure 248 

B. Steel Tank 248 

138. Steel Tank with Heater 250 

139. Stand-pipe Valves: 

A. GuUand Valve 251 

B. Sheffield Valve 251 

C. U. S. Valve 251 

D. Mansfield Valve 251 

140. Methods of Delivering Water to Engine Tanks, Spouts: 

A. Rigid Spout 255 

B. Adjustable Spout 255 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv 

Fia. PAGE 

C. Anti-Splash Nozzle 255 

D. 60,000-Gallon Tank with Spout on Tank 255 

E. U. S. Wind Engine and Pump Co.'s Spout on Coaling Bridge. 255 

141. Methods of Delivering Water to Engine Tanks, Track Tanks: 

A, Circulation System 256 

B, Jet System 257 

C, Track Tank on L. S. & M. S. Ry 258 

Chapter XII. FUEL STATIONS 260 

142. Coahng Platform 261 

143. Coal Docks: 

A. Cars Unloaded by Hand 262 

B. Cars Unloaded by Gravity. 262 

144. Clam Shell 263 

145. Holm en Balanced-bucket Coaling Station 264 

146. Examples of Coaling Stations: 

A. Wood 265 

B. Steel 265 

C. Concrete 265 

147. South Amboy Thawing Plant, Pennsylvania R.R 267 

148. Storing Coal with Clam Shell 268 

149. Dodge System of Coal Storage 269 

Chapter XIIL SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 271 

150. Round Houses: 

A. View of Round House under Construction 271 

B. General Arrangement of Michigan Central Round House .... 272 

C. Smoke Jack 273 

151. Arrangement of Indirect Radiation Heating System 275 

152. Turntable: 

A. General View 277 

B. Tractor 277 

153. Depressed Cinder Pit 278 

154. Mechanical Cinder Plants: 

A. Robertson Cinder Conveyer 279 

B. Gantry Crane 280 

155. Sand-handling Apparatus 281 

156. Layouts: 

A. New York Central Shops, Oak Grove, Pa 283 

B. Lake Shore Shops, CoUinwood, Ohio 283 



xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Chapter XIV. ICING STATIONS 285 

Pig. 

157. Ice-cutting Tools 286 

158. Harvesting Ice: 

A. Elevator Conveyor 287 

B. Car Loader Conveyor 287 

159. Flow of Heat through Simple Wall 290 

160. Flow of Heat through Composite Wall '!......'... 294 

161. Wall Composed of Boards and Hair Insulation '***...... 294 

162. Heat Carried by Convection * ' 296 

163. Ice House with Circulation Vent 302 

164. Ice House with Mill Shavings Insulation: 

Wall Insulation— Swift & Co's. House 304 

165. Ice Houses with Hair and Linofelt Insulation: 

A. House using Hair Insulation 395 

B. Cudahy House 305 

166. Ice House with Mineral Wool Insulation . * . 307 

167. Ice House with Cork Insulation. Illinois Central House. 309 

168. Modern Icing Station, C, B. & Q. Ry. at Galesburg. .' .* 310 

169. Apparatus Used at Icing Stations: 

A. Ice Crusher ^^^ 

B. Icing Cart ^ 3^^^ 

C. Icing Spout or Chute 311 

Chapter XV. SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 312 

170. Signal Blades: 

A. Upper Quadrant Automatic Block Signal Blade 319 

B. Upper Quadrant Interlocking Signal Blade 319 

C. Lower Quadrant Distant Signal Blade 319 

D. Lower Quadrant Train Order Signal Blade 319 

171. Train Order and Manual Block Signals 320 

172. Block Signals on Separate Posts 321 

173. Block Signals with Home and Distant Signals on Same Post. . . 321 

174. Three-Position Block Signals 321 

175. Track Circuits 322 

176. Model 2A. Signal, General Railway Signal Co. : 

A. Top of Mast Mechanism 324 

B. Bottom of Mast Mechanism 324 

177. Block Signal ' . . . ^ 325 

178. Switch Indicator 325 

179. Railroad Crossing Protected by Mechanical Interlocking Plant. ' . ' 327 

180. Saxby & Farmer Interlocking Machine 328 

181. Interlocking Tower 329 

182. Railroad Crossing with Electric and Mechanical Signals . . . . 332 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

FIG. PAGE 

183. Switch and Lock Movement ^333 

184. Facing Point Lock 333 

185. Electro-Pneumatic Interlocking Machine |336 

186. Electro-Pneumatic Switch and Lock Movement 337 

187. Electric Interlocking Machine 340 

188. Cross-section, Electric Interlocking Machine 341 

189. Switch Lever, Electric Interlocking Machine 342 

190. Track Diagram and Manipulation Chart 345 

191. Switch Machine : 346 

192. Switch Machine, Chicago Terminal, C. & N. W. Ry 347 

193. Dwarf Signal 347 

194. Lake Street Interlocking Plant, Chicago Terminal, C. & N. W. Ry. 348 



LIST OF TABLES 



TABLE PAGE 

I. Elevation of Outer Rail 19 

II. Meridians and Base Lines of United States Surveys 25 



/l+sin^y^ 
\1— sin <t>l ' 



III. Values of I ' . I 57 

sm 4)' 

IV. Weights of Ballast 58 

V. Cross-ties Purchased by Kinds of Wood; 1907 to 1911 80 

VI. Theoretical and Practical Switch Leads 148 

VII. Properties of Joints Tested at Water town Arsenal 155 

VIII. Frictional Resistance of Splice Bars 156 

IX. Summary of Roadbed Tests at Altoona 188 

X. Temperature Expansion for Laying 33-ft. Rails 193 

XL Depression of Rails, Government Rail Tests 199 

XII. Reinforcement in Concrete Fence Posts 205 

XIII. Lists of Tools for Different Size Sections 218 

XIV. Value of Different Force Units Expressed in Equivalent Miles of 

Single Mam Track 221 

XV. Schedule of Section Work 223 

XVI. Comparison of Cost of Pumping Water 245 

XVII. Loss of Head in 10-in. Water Columns 252 

XVIII Radiation of Heat 290 

XIX. Loss of Heat from Air Contact 291 

XX. Conductivity of Different Materials 292 

XXI Tests on Different Types of Insulation 299 

xix 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



CHAPTER I 
ENGINEERING 

1. Reconnaissance and Exploration Surveys. — For the first 
studies small-scale general maps should be prepared with contour 
lines at appropriate intervals, depending upon the nature of the 
land. Emphasis should be laid upon the fact that reconnaissance 
maps should be of areas rather than of lines only, and should cover 
sufficient territory to enable an examination and comparison of 
all possible routes to be made. The excellent maps of the U. S. 
Geological Survey (Fig. 1) are now available for a considerable 
part of the country, and these in most cases afford all the informa- 
tion necessary to determine the general route. 

Fig. 2 shows a reconnaissance map of a heavy grade on the 
Asheville and Spartanburg Division of the Southern Railway. 
This grade is about 5 per cent, and necessitates the use of safety 
switches in going down hill, and even with a pusher engine only 
part of the freight trains can be taken up the grade. 

An examination of the country suggested a revision introducing 
sufficient distance to reduce the grade to 2 per cent. The increase 
of distance would be compensated for by the greater hauUng 
capacity of the trains and would under certain conditions result 
in ultimate economy. 

Owing to the cost of the contemplated change and the unbal- 
anced traffic on the line, where the greater tonnage moves down the 



RAILWAY MAIXTEXAXCE 




Fig. 1. — C S. Geological Survey Map, Virginia-Maryland, part of Frederic! 

burg Sheet. 

^^® log ru^ Contour interval, 50 feet. 

125, (XX) 



ENGINEERING 




4 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

hill, such a revision did not appear to be a profitable investment. 
If, however, conditions should change requiring heavier trains to 
be hauled over the hill, a reduction of the grade might well be 
considered. 

At the time the examination was made the condition of the line 
was as follows : 

Engine Rating,- — The engine rating for southbound trains was 
determined by dynamometer test to be from 880 to 900 tons. This 
for 600 class consoHdation engine with 180,000 lbs. on drivers. 

Northbound engine rating, 800 tons, with the exception of the 
line from Tryon to Saluda. Engine rating for Saluda Hill, 
northbound, 275 tons. This for 600 class engines. 

Engine Stage.- — Between Spartanburg and Asheville. 

Number of Trains, — Five or six freight trains and two passenger 
trains each way per day. 

Tonnage.- — Eighty-seven per cent from Asheville to Spartan- 
burg and 13 per cent from Spartanburg to Asheville. 

Operation, — There being only a limited number of trains on 
the Hne, the pusher makes extra trips alone from the top of the 
mountain to the foot and takes up empties, keeping a supply on 
top of the mountain. A northbound freight train with empties 
cuts off any that itself and the pusher cannot handle, at the foot 
of the hill, continues on to the top, fills out its regular load and 
proceeds to Asheville. 

In regions not mapped by the Government, but where county 
atlases are to be obtained, a reconnaissance in force may be made 
over the countr3^ By using the county maps as a basis and 
considering the roads as the base lines of the survey, it is possible 
to secure a very fair topographical map in a comparatively short 
time. 

The roads usually are along the ridges and through the valleys; 
by running stadia lines over these and checking up the levels on any 
known elevations such as the elevation of the track, the levels can 
be adjusted and the distance can be checked as the work pro- 
gresses by comparing the readings with the county maps, copies 
of which should be taken into the field. The contours are ob- 
tained by sketching in the general contour of the country between 



ENGINEERING 5 

the roads as the stadia party moves along and taking stadia shots 
to as many points as desired. After these readings have been 
subsequently reduced in the office, the proper contour lines may be 
drawn upon the final map. 

The use of the camera for obtaining topography was first 
employed in Switzerland, Italy and France. It was extensively 
used in the Government surveys in the western part of Canada. It 
has been employed in India and, in fact, all over the world at those 
places where large areas of rough country have be to mapped. 
It is essentially a method applicable to regions where a large 
amount of territory is to be covered rapidly in the field and is 
well adapted on this account for work in northern climates and 
high altitudes, where only a short period of the year can be 
utilized for field observations. 

In making a camera survey a primary triangulation is first run 
and the camera stations located and their elevations determined. 

The camera in its simplest form consists of an ordinary view 
camera provided with means for leveling and the addition of 
vertical and horizontal cross-hairs which are placed right in front 
of the plate. A horizontal plate with a circle is frequently pro- 
vided upon which the angle can be read as with a transit and the 
views oriented from these readings in the subsequent plotting in the 
office. In very rough country, as in the Canadian surveys, a small 
telescope may be mounted on the camera for reading the vertical 
angle, but in ordinary railroad work the camera is generally leveled 
and if the country is very broken a sufficient number of camera 
stations are located to enable the necessary detail to be obtained. 
Fig. 3 shows a photograph of the Canadian survey used in 
map construction*. The number of views taken at each station 
depends upon the angle of the lens. This angle varies in different 
cameras, but the range is not more than from 30 to 45 degrees. 
In taking the views they should overlap each other, and if the 
angle of the lenses is 45 degrees, the views should be taken about 
every 30 degrees. 

* Topographic Surveying, H. M. Wilson, 1901, John Wiley & Sons, 
New York, p. 293. 



6 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 







Pla^e. 



Fig. 3. — Photograph of Canadian Survey and Used in Map Construction. 

(Wilson.) 

Fig. 4 illustrates the method of plotting the results of the sur- 
vey. The triangulation A 5 is first laid out to the scale of the 
map. Circles are then drawn with the camera stations .4 and B 
as centers and with a radius equal to the principal focal length of 

the camera. The focal length can 
be determined to within y-J-^ in. and 
the circles are drawn with this length 
taken actual size as the radius. 

To determine the horizontal loca^ 
tion of any point as C the distance 
CxCn is laid off on the trace of the 
plate from the center and the radial 
line Ac\ is drawn, another radial line 
is drawn in a similar manner from 
station B^ and the intersection of 
these lines determines the location of 
the point on the map. 
Fig. 4.— Projection of Camera The vertical distance above or 

Plates from a Station. below the camera is calculated by 





ENGINEERING 7 

similar triangles as illustrated in Fig. 5. For example the dis- 
tance AC can be scaled from the map. Ac© is the focal length 
and ciCv may be taken by a pair of dividers from the photograph. 
Then by similar triangles 

- — =-— or CiC = ciCe,X— -. 

The camera survey costs only about one-third as much as a 
plane table survey, and where no maps are available appears 
to afford the best means for making 
reconnaissance maps of considerable 
areas. Contour intervals of 10 ft. can 
be readily drawn by taking a sufficient 
number of views in ordinary country, 
and even if the region is wooded, con- Yjg. 5.— Projection of Camera 
tour intervals of 20 ft. may be deter- Plates, Elevations, 

mined in most cases. However, if 

the contours are taken too closely the cost of the survey increases, 
due to the large amount of office work required. 

2. Location.^ — In laying out the route of a railway two 
important factors govern the selection of the line. First, from 
commercial considerations the road must pass either through or 
near enough to a sufficient number of towns in the country be- 
tween the terminal points to give rise to intermediate traffic, and 
second, from engineering considerations the line, except in a very 
flat country, must conform to the physical characteristics of the 
territory traversed. 

While for these reasons the engineer can rarely locate the 
railway in a straight line between two termini and even less 
frequently with a uniform grade, nevertheless it will generally be 
found that in dealing with heavy traffic conditions the most direct 
method is the best, In applying this principle good judgment 
must, of course, be used, but the whole trend of modern railway 
construction is more and more toward bolder projects which 
naturally lend themselves to such treatment. 

As an illustration of this may be cited the 40-mile cut-off 



8 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

which the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western is now building 
from Clark's Summit, Pa., to Hallstead. This new Une is being 
built to reduce the ruling grade eastbound from 1.23 per cent 
uncompensated to 0.68 per cent compensated, and westbound 
from 0.52 per cent uncompensated to 0.24 per cent compensated, 
and which will eliminate 327 ft. of rise and fall, 2440 degrees of 
central angle and 3.6 miles of line, involves the moving of 
13,318,000 cu. yd. of material or 336,000 cu. yd. per mile, 60 per 
cent of which is rock. It is being constructed for three tracks 
and is estimated to cost $12,000,000, or practically $300,000 
per mile. 

Next to this Lackawanna work probably the heaviest railroad 
construction now under way is that involved in the building of the 
Magnolia cut-off of the Baltimore & Ohio, about 20 miles east of 
Cumberland, Md. This cut-off, 12 miles long, which is being 
built for double track with a maximum grade of 0.1 per cent, will 
be used for eastbound freight traffic, while all passenger trains and 
westbound freight trains will use the two existing tracks. Its 
construction involves the moving of over 3,500,000 cu. yd. of 
material, over 90 per cent of which is rock. It is estimated to 
cost $6,000,000, or $500,000 per mile. The cut-off eliminates 
5.95 miles of distance and 877 degrees of curvature in addition 
to reducing the maximum grade eastbound from 0.5 per cent to 
0.1 per cent and ehminating a helper grade 2.8 miles long.* 

Three general conditions will govern the location of the line: 

a. Where it is necessary to support the grade line. 

6. Where the elevation to be overcome is not great and the 
traffic is sufficiently heavy to warrant the expense of heavy work 
to obtain a low grade line. 

c. On heavy traffic lines located in prairie country, where the 
long, undulating slopes are on a steeper grade than that desired. 

In the first case the Une is generally made to follow a 
stream, and supporting ground is found on the sides of the valley. 
The development contemplated in Fig. 2 is an example of sup- 

* Description of the D. L. & W. and the Magnolia cut-offs taken from 
E. T. Howson's Lecture before the Detroit Engineering Society, January 
8, 1915. 



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ENGINEERING 9 

porting a grade line, where distance is introduced to reduce the 
grade. 

This method of construction, except where considerable eleva- 
tions are to be overcome, appUes more usually to Hght traffic 
lines. 

The conditions shown by the Une in Fig. 6 are interesting to 
study in connection with the second case. 

The territory traversed is quite broken. The line runs at 
right angles to the direction of the important streams and conse- 
quently consists of a series of undulations as it passes over the 
different drainage areas. None of these undulations, however, 
are of great magnitude, as the difference in elevation between the 
streams in the valleys and the summits between their respective 
watersheds is comparatively small. One per cent grades and 
curves as high as 5 degrees are used. 

In looking over the situation there are obviously two courses 
to follow: First, to utilize as much as possible of the existing line 
and make revisions of the line at those places where the worst 
curvature and grades occur; and second, to lay a new line without 
reference to the present location except in so far as the principal 
towns are concerned. 

The latter course would appear to be worth investigating, as 
from the profile it is apparent that the road reaches nearly the 
same elevation after rising from the River Valley at A as that 
attained at Pelton. The grade line is constantly rising and falling 
between these points, but the elevation at no place varies in the 
entire distance more than from 1243 ft. above sea level, at the 
highest point, to in the neighborhood of 850 ft. above mean tide- 
water at the lowest. This difference in elevation should not 
appear at all serious, and the magnitude of the work involved 
would not be out of the way as compared with what has been 
done on the Pennsylvania between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, 
the Lackawanna, the Baltimore & Ohio along the Cumberland 
River, and other heavy traffic lines. 

A great deal of the country in the Middle Western States 
consists of prairies which, while they appear to the eye to be level 
or nearly so, when the line is run are found to consist of long slopes 



10 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

having gradients which may reach 1 per cent. If it is desired to 
reduce the grade of the line to less than the natural grade of 
the country, the only practical method is to raise the elevation 
at the foot of the slope by making heavy fills and by cutting into 
the summit. As long cuts are objectionable on account of the 
difficulty of obtaining proper drainage, the usual practice is to 
raise the line on embankments, involving heavy expense in what 
at first sight w^ould appear to be an ideal country to locate the 
road. 

At the present stage of this country's development the rail- 
road engineer is more frequently called upon to relocate or revise 
an existing line than to construct an entirely new railway. He is 
thus evidently in a position to obtain accurate information in 
reference to the physical condition of the country traversed, 
such as the flow of streams, character of the sub-strata, etc., as 
well as the traffic which the new line must be built to carry 
economically. This is a decided advantage, and one which ena- 
bles the engineer to proceed with much more certainty than in 
the case of a new line in undeveloped country. 

Fig. 7 shows a plan for a revision of line where the heavy 
passenger traffic warrants a considerable expenditure to eliminate 
curvature. The treatment in this case is somewhat different 
from that used in Fig. 6, as the route had been selected from a 
reconnaissance study map and the line actually run in on the 
ground. Fig. 8 is a photograph of the present line. 

3. Construction. — In constructing the road it is usually divided 
into sections about ten miles in length in charge of a resident 
engineer. The resident engineer is responsible for the work on 
his residency except in the case of major structures, where deci- 
sions as to the depth of foundations and other special problems 
are made by the chief engineer or his assistant. 

The resident engineer on taking charge of his residency should 
at once establish permanent bench marks and reference points for 
the located alignment. The line should next be cross-sectioned 
and slope stakes set for the grading. From the cross-section 
notes the construction profile should then be prepared, showing in 
pencil the approximate quantities and overhaul. From this pro- 



S o .i ^ m ^ 



s^LJ^ 



^Sz 



lel 



fa. 



vM^ 



-DttttC^VN 



m 



^ 



^ 



^ 



7000 
of Present Tracks 



6900 




7000 

& of Proposed Tracks. 
Revision of Line. 



6900 



To face page 10. 







7100 7000 

— Profile of Proposed Tracks. — 
Fig. 7. — ^Revision of Line. 



To face page 10. 



ENGINEERING 



11 



file the method of carrying on the work may be outhned and the 
disposition of the material from cuts decided upon. The profile 
should also show the classification of the material to be moved, 
as earth, loose rock, sohd rock, and indicate clearly the borrowed 
quantities where the excavation is not sufficient for the embank- 
ment. 

Fig. 9 shows the form of construction profile used in the build- 
ing of the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf Railroad Company's 




Fig. 8. — View of Line Shown in Fig. 7. 



line across the State of Arkansas in 1899.* In plotting the haul 
curve shown in the lower part of the profile each horizontal space 
is taken as 100 cubic yards. Starting at the point of division of 
haul in the cut Sta. 3965+87, and adding the yards at each 
station to the total yardage from the preceding stations the curve 

* Manual for Resident Engineers, F. A. Molitor and E. J. Beard, 1912, 
John. Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 28, 57. 



12 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




Berm Ditch on left put in £mb. ZTS.Ocy. 




80 7T 

Fig. 9. — Construction Profile. (Molitor and Beard.) 



ENGINEERING 13 

is downward to the end of the cut. From this point the curve 
rises at each station an amount equal to the embankment yardage 
at that station until it reaches the horizontal line at Sta. 3980+44, 
when the material from the cut is exhausted, and after this point 
is reached it is necessary to draw the excavated material from the 
next cut or borrow for the fill. 

Drawing a horizontal line at the center of bulk of the fill it is 
seen that the material is hauled an average length of 750 ft., and 
as the limit of free haul was 500 ft., the overhaul amounted to 
9054 X (750 -500) or 22,635 cu.yd. hauled 100 feet. 

As the work progresses approximate monthly estimates of 
work done are furnished the contractor, from which ten per cent 
is usually deducted. Progress reports should be prepared by 
coloring on a copy of the profile the excavation moved and the 
embankment placed. An index to the color scheme should pref- 
erably be placed on the profile to show and compare the work 
done during different months. 

Final estimates should be made whenever any piece of work 
is completed. 

4. Estimation of Quantities. — In making preliminary estimates 
of grading if the ground is level or approximately so the quantities 
are taken from a table of level cuttings which gives the cubic yards 
in a 100-ft. station for different center heights taken from the 
profile. These tables are merely the cubic yards contained in a 
section of the roadway 100 ft. long and of constant area and are 
based on the assumption that the ground is level and of constant 
distance from the grade line throughout the 100-ft. section. 

For paying the contractor it is necessary to compute the 
quantities more accurately. This is usually done by the method 
of averaging end areas. The end area may be determined by 
plotting the section, but is more generally calculated directly from 
the readings in the cross-section book. Sections to determine the 
end areas should be taken every 100 ft., and where the ground is 
irregular more frequently. In estimating the quantities at the 
end of a cut where the section at the grade point has no area, the 
yardage should be calculated by multiplying the end area of 
the last section by one-third of the length. 



14 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

Fig. 10 shows the form in which the quantities are entered in 
the cross-section book as used on the construction of the Choctaw. 

The areas may be calculated from the notes by dividing the 
section up into figures at each reading and t.u:mg their combined 
area. For example, at Sta. 4009+25 the ^niculation would be 

Area left of center 13a(^^^^^ ]-3,qI ^^''^~^ ) =47.32 



Area right of center 15.5 / 4.9 +5.0 \ _ 5 q / 15.5 8 \ ^ ^^ ^^ 



105.29 



the terms deducted being the areas of. the triangles outside of 
the slopes. Where the slope of the ground is uniform, formulae, 
diagrams or tables are frequently used to reduce the actual 
numerical work. 

The area of the section is then averaged with the area of 
the section next preceding and the corresponding yardage taken 
from a table which gives the cubic yards for different end areas 
100 ft. apart. 

End area formula: 



V = 



^(A+B)XL 



27 

The volume of any prismoid is given by the following 
formula : 

Prismoidal formula: 



V = 



i(A+^C+B)XL 
27 

where A and B are the end areas, L the perpendicular distance 
between the ends of the prismoid and C the area of a section 
parallel and midway between the ends. 

This latter formula, on account of the work involved, is rarely 
used in calculating earthwork, and if greater accuracy is desired 



ENGINEERING 



15 



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16 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

than that obtained by the method of averaging end areas, a 
prismoidal correction is applied. 

The error in computing by averaging end areas increases as 
the square of the difference in center height and is not affected 
by the absolute volume of the soUd. This error nearly always 
gives a quantity in excess of the true amount, but the excess 
is small and will probabh^ not be more than 1 per cent for any 
usual section of road.* 

In estimating the grading quantities in the Federal valuation 
of the railroads the cross-section notes are plotted directly in the 
field in a loose-leaf book, as shown in Fig. llA.f Ballast sound- 
ings are taken at the center of the track to determine the top 
of the roadbed. It will be observed that the scale used gives 
a figure which it is more convenient to planimeter than that 
plotted to the ordinary scale of 10 ft. = l in., for both horizontal 
and vertical distances, while the same setting of the planimeter 
may be employed as with the latter scale. 

In the use of the planimeter in connection with notes plotted 
in the field, three readings should be taken of each area and 
the maximum variation allowed should not exceed 1 per cent 
between extreme readings. Two men, one to run the plan- 
imeter and the other to compile the results, can compute the 
quantities for about 5 miles of road per day, which is prob- 
ably more rapid progress than can be obtained by the ordinary 
methods of calculating the areas by formulae. 

In Fig. 115 is illustrated a section of roadbed in side-hill 
work. This may be plotted directly in the field as the cross- 
section party moves along and the slope stakes set by measur- 
ing the distance from the center line as shown by the drawing. 
For this character of work it is desirable to use a cross-section 
book about 15 ins. square. 

5. Curves and Spirals. — The most difficult part of the track 
to maintain is that on curves. 

To enable the train to ride properly on the curve the resultant 

* See Economic Theory of the Location of Railways, A. M. Wellington, 
1900, John Wiley & Sons,*^ New York, p. 896. 

t The size of the page has been somewhat increased over that shown. 



ENGINEERING 



17 



1 


B.T. poHMNo. s INTERSTATE COk* 

^ DATE ">""=■»*• «' 

V_y CARRIER . 

VALUATION SECTION...- _.„. «»-• 


ERCE COMMISSION page..-. 

YALUAnoM 

. FOR CARRIER 

" FORI.C.C. 












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18 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



of the weight of the train and the centrifugal force should act 
at right angles to the plane of the track, and as this resultant 
obviously cannot be vertical, the plane of the track which is 
perpendicular to it should not be horizontal. 

The elevation of the outer rail on curves can be determined 
as follows:* 

Referring to Fig. 12, 

6 = Elevation of outer rail in feet; 

V = Velocity of train in feet per second ; 
G = Gauge of track in feet; 
/2 = Radius of curve in feet; 
Gi = TT^ = Weight of train in pounds; 
6i = J^c = Centrifugal force in pounds; 
a6 = Resultant- of W and Fc. 




Fig. 12. — Elevation of 
Outer Rail on Curves. 

-=- but 



ei 



eiG 






(I 



Then from similai* triangles we have 

.,2 



R 



G 



Wv^G v^G Gv^ 



Gi 



Gi 



gWR gR 32.16/2 



Or if 



F = Velocity in miles per hour; 

Z) = Degree of curve; 

£' = Elevation of outer rail in inches at the gauge line, 



then 



^-.00066Z)F2.t 
Table I gives the results calculated by this formula. 

* Manual Am. Ry. Eng. Asso., 1911, p. 112. 

5730 
t Approximate in that it is assumed that R = . 



ENGINEERING 



19 



TABLE I 

Elevation of Outer Rail in Inches (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.) 



Degree 
of 


Velocity in Miles per Hour. 


Degree 
of 


Curve. 


10. 


20. 


30. 


40. 


.50. 


60. 


70. 


Curve. 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 




! 

f 

1 
1 

1 


1 

4 

\ 
3 

4 

1 

n 
If 

n 

.2* 
21 

21 


1 
If 

2f 

3 

34 

4i 

4f 

5f 

5-1 


1| 

2i 
3i 
4i 
5i 
6^ 
7f 


1| 

3i 

4J 
61 
8i 


2 
4 

7 




3i 
6^ 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



The maximum elevation should not exceed 6 or 7 ins., 
although in some cases more elevation than this is allowed. 
Too great elevation is undesirable, especially where the traffic 
is mixed, i.e., passenger and freight, or on single track where the 
speeds in opposite directions are generally different. 

On side tracks very little elevation should be placed on the 
curves, and, in fact, in most cases of tracks for industrial plants 
it is well to omit the elevation altogether. The curves on these 
tracks may reach 30 or 40 degrees or more, but the train move- 
ment is so slow that no appreciable effect of centrifugal force 
is noticed. 

In large cities, where the track room is cramped, industrial 
tracks are often built on very sharp curves, and special engines 
with short wheel bases and long coupled between engine and 
tank are employed to switch over these tracks. Where the use of 
sharp curves cannot be avoided, the territory should be divided 
into districts and a certain maximum curvature estabhshed for 
each district, based on the power available for switching in that 
particular district. For side tracks along the line where switch- 
ing is done by road engines, the curves should be of a longer 



20 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

radius than that used in the districts where switch engines are 
employed. 

On sharp curves the gauge should be widened. On some 
roads it is the practice to allow a certain amount of extra width 
in the gauge for every degree of curve, but apparently this is 
unnecessary refinement, and the following rule answers all prac- 
tical purposes: 

On curves greater than 5 degrees and up to and including 14 
degrees, widen the gauge one-half in. 

On curves greater than 14 degrees, widen the gauge 1 in. 

The gauge may be widened by the use of an iron shim 
inserted between the lug of the track gauge and the head of the 
rail. It is not customary to widen gauge in the curve of a turnout. 

On account of the extra resistance in hauHng a train around 
a curve, it is desirable to compensate or reduce the rate of grade 
on main line curves a sufficient amount to give a uniform pull 
at the draw bar of the locomotive when ascending a grade. The 
amount of compensation to allow is a mooted question among 
engineers, but .04 ft. per degree of central angle (.04 per cent 
per degree of curvature) may be taken as representing good 
practice.* In the case of long curves placed on limiting grades 
where it is necessary to haul long trains the author has found 
it desirable to make ample provision for the extra resistance 
due to the curve. 

On all important lines the curves have some sort of easement 
or spiral approach to cause the resultant of the weight of the train 
and the centrifugal force at every point to be perpendicular to 
the plane of the track in passing from the tangent to the cir- 
cular curve. 

These spirals in general have the form of a cubic parabola 
in which the degree of curve varies directly as the length of the 
spiral, the deflection angle as the square of the length and the 
offset distance as the cube of the length. 

As the elevation and the curvature increase directly with 
the distance in passing from the tangent to the circular curve, 

* The American Railway Engineering Association recommends 0.035. 



ENGINEERING 21 

the result is that the inclination of the track is proportional to 
the centrifugal force at any point. 

Almost any of the spirals in common use will give the same 
results as far as the riding of the track is concerned, and in adopt- 
ing a spiral the subject should be approached with the view 
of deciding upon some method which will enable the curve used 
to be run in on the ground with the smallest amount of difficulty. 

In staking out easement curves, the easement is generally 
given the length that conditions permit, without too much 
expense in widening cuts and fills. It is good practice to use 
an easement of 150 ft. to the degree and in elevating the outer 
rail divide this easement into four parts per degree and elevate 
the rail for each sub-station; that is, first 37| ft. sub-station, 
^ in.; second, 1 in.; third, 1| ins.; and the fourth, at 150 ft., 
2 ins. These figures, of course, refer to high-speed track where 
it is necessary to elevate in the neighborhood of 2 ins. per degree. 
(See Table I.) 

Where it is not convenient to use a length of spiral of 150 ft. 
to the degree this may be reduced to possibly a minimum of 
100 ft. to the degree on the main line and 80 ft. to the degree on 
branch lines. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Operations Preliminary to Construction 

The Economic Theory of Railway Location, A. M. Wellington, 1900, 
New York. 

The Effect of the Physical Characteristics of a Railroad upon the 
Operation of Trains, J. D. Isaacs and E. E. Adams, Proceedings Am. Ry. 
Eng. and M. of Way Assn., Vol. II., Part 2, 1910, pp. 1311-1327 (con- 
tains method of comparing the operating costs of two or more proposed 
railroad lines) . 

Topographic Surveying, H. M. Wilson, 1912, New York, pp. 292-304 
(description of photographic surveying) . 

Rapid Field Sketching and Reconnaissance, Capt. W. Verner, 1889, 
London. 

Photographic Surveying, Dominion Land Survey, E. Deville, 1895, 
Ottawa, Canada. 



22 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

The Theory and Practice of Surveying, J. B. Johnson, 1913,,New York, 
pp. 281-292 (railroad topographical surveying). 

Field Practice of Railway Location, W. Beahan, 1909, New York. 

Railroad Location Surveys and Estimates, F. Lavis, 1908, New York. 

Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and 
Architecture, J. C. Wait, 1900, New York. 

Construction 

Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence, J. C. Wait, 1901, New 
York. 

Manual for Resident Engineers, Molitor and Beard, 1912, New York. 
Haul and Overhaul, J. C. L. Fish, 1913, New York. 

Estimation of Quantities 
Quantity Surveying, J. Leaning, 1891, London. 

Spirals 
Manual, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, pp. 96-111. 



CHAPTER II 
LAND 

6. Basic Divisions of Land. — The present system of surveying 
the pubhc lands in the United States was inaugurated by a 
committee appointed by the Continental Congress and of which 
Thomas Jefferson was chairman. 

On the 7th of' May, 1784, this committee reported '' An 
ordinance for ascertaining the mode of locating and disposing 
of lands in the western territory, and for other purposes therein 
mentioned/' This ordinance required the public lands to be 
divided into ^^ hundreds'' of 10 geographical miles square, and 
those again to be subdivided into lots of 1 mile square each, 
to be numbered from 1 to 100, commencing in the northwestern 
corner, and continuing from west to east and from east to west 
consecutively. This ordinance was considered, debated, and 
amended, and reported to Congress April 26, 1785, and required 
the surveyors ^^ to divide the said territory into townships of 
7 miles square, by lines running due north and south, and others 
crossing these at right angles. . . . The plats of the townships, 
respectively, shall be marked by subdivisions into sections of 
1 mile square, or 640 acres, in the same direction as the external 
hues and numbered from 1 to 49. . . . And these sections shall 
be subdivided into lots of 320 acres." This is the first record 
of the use of the word ^^ township " and ^^ section." 

May 3, 1785, the section respecting the extent of townships 
was amended by striking out the words ^^seven miles square " 
and substituting the words '^ six miles square." The records 
of these early sessions of Congress are not very full or complete; 
but it does not seem to have occurred to the members until the 
6th of May, 1785, that a township 6 miles square could not 

23 



24 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

contain 49 sections of 1 mile square. At that date a motion to 
amend was made, which pro^-ided, among other changes, that 
a township should contain 36 sections: and the amendment 
was lost. The ordinance as finally passed, however, on the 
20th of ^lay, 1785, provided for townships 6 miles square, con- 
taining 36 sections of 1 mile square. 

The system of rectangular sur^^e^dng, authorized by law 
May 20, 1785. was first employed in the survey of United States 
pubHc lands in the State of Ohio. 

The boundarv' fine between the States of Pennsylvania and 
Ohio, known as ^'' Elhcott's line/' in longitude 80° 32' 20'' west 
from Greenwich, is the meridian to which the first surveys are 
referred. The townships east of the Scioto River, in the State 
of Ohio, are numbered from south to north, commencing with 
No. 1 on the Ohio River, while the ranges are numbered from east 
to west, beginning with No. 1 on the east boundary of the State, 
except in the tract designated '' U. S. militar^^ land,'' in which 
the to^TLships and ranges are numbered, respectively, from 
the south and east boundaries of this tract. 

During the period of 130 years since the organization of the 
system of rectangular survejdng, numbered and locally-named 
principal meridians and base lines have been estabUshed, as 
shown b}^ Table II. 

The tiers of townships are numbered, to the north or south, 
commencing with No. 1, at the base Hne; and the ranges of the 
townships, to the east or west, beginning ^^ih No. 1, at the prin- 
cipal meridian of the system. 

In the first surv^eys, which covered what is now part of the 
State of Ohio, the sections were numbered from 1 to 36, commenc- 
ing \\ath No. 1, in the southeast corner of the township, and 
running from south to north in each tier to No. 36 in the north- 
west corner of the township. But under an Act of Congress, 
approved May 18, 1786, the thirty-six sections into which a 
township is subdi^^ded are numbered, commencing vriih. No. 1 
at the northeast angle of the township, and proceeding west to 
No. 6, and thence proceeding east to No. 12, and so on, alter- 
nately, to No. 36 in the southeast angle. 



LAND 



25 



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O (M O i-i 10 1-1 -^ i-H .-I tH Tt< »0 O O CO t^ O -^ lO Tj* 10 CO Tt< CC CO OS 

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26 . RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

This method of numbering sections is still in use. 

All of the territoiy north of the Ohio River and west of the 
Mississippi River not owned by individuals previous to the dates 
of cession to the United States government as well as portions of 
the States of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee have 
been laid out b}^ the government in this manner. 

This has saved large sums of money to property owners by 
preventing the confusion and Utigation which is common in the 
old Colonial States. 

Writing Descriptions of Property to be Acquired. — Descrip- 
tions should be written with due regard to accuracy, brevity, 
simplicity and clearness; avoiding double description and legal 
verbiage. 

The plats to accompany the description should show the 
cardinal points and the courses and distances given in the de- 
scription. 

The most logical starting-point should be chosen and care- 
fully described; the best defined of the two courses should then 
follow, regardless of the direction of rotation, although rotation 
in the same direction as the hands of a clock is preferable. 

The area should be given in description and shown on plat. 

The following grammatical errors should be guarded against: 
^' 33 feet on either side/' when 33 feet on each side is meant; 
^^ parallel to/' when parallel ivith is meant; intersection of Brown's 
line and Smith's line, when imth Smith's line is meant. 

In describing the boundaries of land it is desirable to cal- 
culate the latitude and departures of the corners of the area and 
make a closure on the starting-point which will thus insure the 
accuracy of the lengths and courses given and avoid possible 
future lawsuits due to any inaccuracy in the description. 

The following typical cases and descriptions are given for 
general guidance and should not be blindly followed : 

7. United States Surveys. — First : On Surveyed Lines. — 
Fig. 13. All that certain strip or parcel of land situate in Section 
One (1); Township One (1) North; Range One (1) West of the 

Second Principal Meridian, in the County of , 

State of , Described as follows, to wit. : 



LAND 



27 



A strip of land one hundred (100) feet in width, fifty (50) 
feet on each side of the following described center line : Commenc- 
ing at a point in the East line of said Section, 1760 feet North of 
the Southeast Corner thereof, Thence Northwestwardly in a 
straight line 6230 feet, more or less, to a point in the West Line 
of said Section 1760 feet North of the Southwest corner of the 
Northwest Quarter thereof; and containing an area of 14.302 
acres more or less. 

Note. — The above is designed to be used where even widths 
of right of way are acquired upon lines located, either under 



Sec.I,TwpI,North,Range I. 
West, of 2^^Prin. Meridian. 




Fig. 13. — United States Surveys, on Surveyed Lines. 



construction or in prospect and where it is necessary to absolutely 
fix the position of the strip of land to be conveyed, by reference 
to the lines or corners of the United States Surveys. 

Second, Tracts of Land, — ^Fig. 14. All that certain strip or 

parcel of land situate in County, State of 

Described as follows, to wit: 

The South one hundred and seventy-five (175) feet of the 
Northeast Quarter of the Northeast Quarter of Section One (1), 
Township One (1) North; Range One (1) West of the Second 
Principal Meridian, County and State aforesaid, containing an 
area of Acres, more or less. 

Note. — The above is to be used for tracts of land in United 
States Surveys, 



28 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



Third, Strips along Existing Tracks,— Fig. 15. All that 

strip or parcel of land situate in County, 

State of y Described as follows, to 

wit: 



N.W.>4 



S.W.^ 



N.E.'-a 



1320 



S.E>4 



SEC.I,TwRl,N,f?.lW2'^-^PM. 



Fig. 14.— United States Surveys, Tracts of Land. 




Sec l,TwpJ,N.,RIW,2'i^PM 



Fig. 15.— United States Surveys, Strips along Existing Tracks. 

A strip of land eighty (80) feet in width, forty (40) feet on 

each side of the center hne of the Main Track of the 

j^ail ^ as the same is now located and constructed 

over and across the East Half of the Northwest Quarter of the 
Southeast Quarter of Section One (1); Township One (1) North; 
Range One (1) West of the Second Principal Meridian, County 



LAND 



29 



and State aforesaid; having a length of feet, and 

containing an area of Acres, more or less. 

Note. — The above is designed to be used where rights of way 
are acquired with reference to existing main tracks. 

8. Irregular Surveyed Land. — Fig. 16. All that certain 

strip of land situate in Township, 

County, State of , Described as follows, to wit: 

pT.NEk5EG.l-,Tl.N.,RlWj ZIPF^M. 

5tone 



^ 



Stone 




Fig. 16. — Irregular Surveyed Land. 

Beginning at a point in the line dividing lands of the Grantor 
from lands of Adam Jones on the east and distant N. 25° W. 247.3 
feet from a stone at the Southeasterly corner of Grantor's lands: 
Thence N. 60° W. 1166 feet parallel with and 33 feet distant 
Southwestwardly from the center line of the original main track 

of the Rail Company to a point in 

the line dividing said lands of the Grantor from lands of James 
Miller on the West, and distant N. 38° E. 357.6 feet from a stone 
at the Southwesterly corner of the Grantor's said lands: Thence 
along said dividing hne N. 38° E. 70 feet, more or less, to a point 



30 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

distant 33 feet Northeastwardly measured at right angles from 
the center line aforesaid; Thence S. 60° E. 1086 feet parallel 
with and 33 feet distant Northeastwardly from said center line 
to a point in the Hne dividing the lands of Grantor from lands 
of Adam Jones, heretofore mentioned; Thence along said divid- 
ing line S. 25° E. 98 feet, more or less, to the place of beginning 
and containing an area of 1.706 acres, more or less, and being a 
part of a certain tract of land conveyed by William Brown and 
wife to said John Smith, the Grantor herein, by their Deed, 

Dated, a.d , and recorded in. . . . 

Volume , page , of the Deed Records of the 

County and State aforesaid. 

Note. — The above is designed to be used in all cases where 
the lands to be conveyed should be referred absolutely by descrip- 
tive' field notes to the actual lines of irregular shaped tracts of 
land, which have no definite location other than mere identity 
on the ground. It is usually the best practice in such cases to 
mention the Grantors' next preceding recorded title. This method 
can be used for additional and irregular shaped parcels of land 
to be acquired. 

9. Additional Widths. — First: Where the additional width 
is on one or both sides, and extends all the way through a tract 
of land over which a right of way had previously been secured. 
Fig. 17. 

All that certain strip or parcel of land situate in the North- 
east Quarter of Section One (1); Township One (1) North, 
Range One (1) West of the Second Principal Meridian, in the 

County of , State of , 

Described as follows, to wit: 

A strip of land forty (40) feet in width over and across said 
quarter section and lying adjacent to and on the Northerly side 
of that certain strip of land conveyed by John Smith and wife 

to the Rail Company, by their Deed, 

Dated a.d , Recorded in . . 

Volume Page of the Deed Records of the County 

and State aforesaid, the strip of land hereby conveyed contain- 
ing 1.226 acres, more or less. 



LAND 



31 



Note. — The above method is very flexible and can be used 
in nearly all cases where the U. S. Surveys exist, even when the 
additional width does not extend all the way adjacent to the 
original tract, provided the end boundary lines are parallel with 
the Section Lines, by the introduction of the following clause 

Pt N.E.V4Sec.liTlN., RIW 2^-P?M, 

Original Owner: John Smith. 

Present Owner: Michael Roach, 



1320' 



^ 



Where the Additional Width is on one or both Sides ^ and Extends 
all the Way through a Tract of Land over which a Right of- Way had 
previously been. Secured. 

Fig. 17. — Additional Widths, Regular. 

at the beginning of the descriptive notes: ^' A strip of land 40 
feet in width extending from the East Line of said Quarter Sec- 
tion Westwardly feet, and lying adjacent to and on the 

Northerly Line of that certain strip of land,'^ etc. 

Second, — Where the Additional Width is Trapezoidal or 
Irregular. Fig. 18. 

PtN.E.V45ec.1', TIN-RIW. Z^-^PM. 

Original OwnendoHN Smith. 

Present Owner ■■Michael Poach. , 

S 85'E 200 




500' 




•§-^S- — ^ NSB^'W —^- 



Where the Additional Width is trapezoidal or irregular. 
Fig. 18. — Additional Widths, Trapezoidal or Irregular. 

All that certain strip or parcel of land situate in the North- 
east Quarter of Section One (1); Township One (1) North; 
Range One (1) West of the Second Principal Meridian, in the 



32 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

County of . . . ■ , State of , 

Described as follows, to wit: 

Beginning at a point on the Northerly Boundary Line of 

the present right of way of the Rail 

Company, distant therein 300 feet from the East line of said 
Quarter Section, and also distant Northerly 50 feet at right 
angles from the center line of the main track of said Railway 
as now constructed; Thence N. 85° W. 500 feet along said right 
of way hne to the intersection of said line with the Grantor's 
Westerly Boundarj^ line; Thence along Grantor's Westerl}^ Bound- 
ary Line; N. 12° E. 35 feet; Thence N. 70° E. 150 feet to a 
point distant 150 feet Northwardly at right angles from the 
center line of main track aforesaid; Thence S. 85° E. 200 feet 
parallel with and 150 feet Northwardh^ from said center hne; 
Thence N. 70° E. 132 feet to a point in Grantor's Easterly Bound- 
ary line; Thence S. 18° E. 150 feet along Grantor's Easterly 
Boundary hne to the place of beginning, and containing an area 
of Acres, more or less. 

Note. — The above method is most generally used for all 
such cases; and is adaptable to surveys where curves and straight 
lines are involved, and whether the land is in United States 
Surveys or not. 

10. City Property: Town Lots. — First: Lot or even Part of 
Lot. Fig. 19. 

All that certain lot or parcel of ground situate in the City 

of , in the County of , 

State of Described as follows, to wit: 

The North 40 feet of lots, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 
in Block 17 of J. K. Brown's Sub-Division of the East Half of 
the Northeast Quarter of Section One (1); Township One (1) 
North; Range One (1) West of the Second Principal Meridian, 

Recorded in Plat Book, Vol Page , of the Plat 

Records of the County aforesaid. 

Note. — ^The above is the simplest way of conveying lots. 
Where a part of a lot is conveyed, as for instance in Fig. A, the 
description may read, '' The North 25 feet of the East 27.60 feet 
of Lot No. \;' etc. 



LAND 



33 



/Second.— Right of Way Cutting Across Lots. Fig. 20, 
All that strip or parcel of land situate in the City of 

in the County of , State of 

Described as follows, to wit: 



CO 



Jackson 



+- 

CO 



y^ 



OV 


^.v; 


M M 






u — 


t^i 


^/s 


40' 


i» 


»1 


»j 


»> 


7» 


>i 


40- 


8 


7 


6 


5 

Bl 


4 


3 

: 17 


Z 


I 



0/- 



•THE 



□ 




A I 


ley 


i<^ 


^ 


-2"-. 


■"" 


y 


OF 


TH 


E^ 


IE 


!^S 


?c\ 


J 


9 


.10 


n 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


40' 


11 


>j 


11 


»» 


" 


i» 


40' 



\ti-, 



Monroe 



c 
o 

E 

V. 

X 

in 




,^\^ 



4- 

C 
D 



[27.6 
LOTl 
40' 



Fig.A 



Fio. 19. — City Property. Lot or Even Part of Lot. 




Alley - X 60' > 



13 +Jb St. 
Fig. 20.— City Property. Right of Way Cutting Across Lots. 

A strip of land 40 feet wide, 20 feet on each side of a center 
line drawn across lots 311, 312, 313, 314, 315 and 316, in John 
Andrews Addition to the City of aforesaid; 



34 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

said center line being more particularly described as follows: 
Beginning at a point in the North Hne of the Alley between 13th 
and 14th Streets in said Addition, distant 60 feet westwardly 
therein from the West line of West B Street; Thence in a straight 
line (or a curved line convex to the (N.E or S.W.) having. . . .feet 
for the radius) to a point in the South Line of 14th Street, distant 
32 feet Eastwardly therein from the East Line of West C Street. 

Note.— This method may be used for any single lot, so long 
as the center line description is used as shown above. 

Writing Descriptions of Property to be Leased. Fig. 21. 

11. First Class. — A strip of land situate in the town of ..... 

County of , State of , Described as 

follows, to wit: 

Beginning at a point 30 feet Southwardly at right angles from 

a point in the center line of main track of the . Rail 

Company, which is distant 150 feet Westwardly, 

therein from the West Hne of Main Street; Thence continuing 
Southwardly at right angles to said center line, 20 feet- Thence 
Westwardly parallel with said center line 60 feet; Thence North- 
wardly at right angles thereto 20 feet; Thence Eastwardly 
parallel with said center line 60 feet to the place of beginning, 
* containing an area of 1200 square feet. 

12. Second Class. — A certain lot of land in the City of 

County, State of , Described as follows, 

to wit: 

Beginning at the Northwest corner of Main and Washington 
Streets; Thence Westwardly 75 feet along Washington Street; 
Thence Northwardly 80 feet parallel with Main Street; Thence 
Eastwardly 75 feet parallel with Washington Street to Main 
Street; Thence Southwardly 80 feet along Main Street to the 
place of beginning, containing an area of 6000 square feet. 

13. Third Class. — A certain piece of land situate in the City of 

, County, State of , Described 

as follows, to wit: 

A rectangular piece of ground 16 feet by 40 feet, lying parallel 
with and 10 feet Northwardly from the center Hne of siding No. 
15 of said Lessor Company, in the rear of its Station Building 



LAND 



35 



Fl RST. 



[NTS r«^ 

tZEdf: 



150' 



^ 



2 



Second. 







Washington St 



/K 



Fig. a 



+h 



10 tr 5t. 



-j<- 


I2C 


) ' 


% 


ol 






-. 


CO] 






o 


Vv 






■».. 


<> 


s= 


90' 


^ 


'SS 


/^ 







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if) 



Thi 



10 ^-^ 



St-. 




Fig. 21. — Leases. 



36 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

in the said City, and distant 120 feet Northwardly measured 
along said siding No. 15 from the West line of Main Street, and 
containing an area of 640 square feet. 

Note. — This latter form is not very desirable, but may be 
used where Tenancy at Will Leases are granted for privileges 
which are manifestly of the most temporary character, and 
where the tenancy of the ground is of no material importance, 
as far as precise location is concerned. 

Where it is desired more definitely to locate the grant, rect- 
angular ordinates from property or street lines should be taken 
to two corners, and used in the description, as in Fig. A: 

A rectangular piece of ground 16 feet Northeast and South- 
west, by 40 feet Northwest and Southeast; The Northeast cor- 
ner of which is 90 feet West of Main Street and 100 feet South of 
10th Street, and the Northwest corner of which is 80 feet south 
of 10th Street and 120 feet West of Main Street; and contains an 
area of 640 square feet. 

14. Purchase of Lands. — In making a statement of land to be 
purchased it is desirable to have an agreement with the owner 
which should accompany the report. A plat and description 
should also accompany the statement and the following informa- 
tion should be given in the report : 

1. State with whom the agreement has been made, and, if the agree- 
ment is in writing, transmit it with the statement. All agreements should 
be made in writing, if at all possible, and no oral conditions, or promises, 
made, unless shown thereon. 

2. Ascertain and state the names of all the owners, and their wives 
and husbands, by whom the deed is to be made, and their places of 
residence — town or township, county and state — and occupation; give 
the correct spelling of the names of the parties, and the initials, as they 
are to be signed to the deed, and if any party is an unmarried woman 
or man, widow or widower, state it. (This information must be full.) 
If a corporation give corporate name, place of business, names of Presi- 
dent, Secretary and Treasurer, and name of State where incorporated. 
If any parties in interest are minors, state the age of each. 

3. State to what Company, or individual, the deed is to be made; if 
individual, give residence and occupation. 

4. State for what purpose the land is required; whether for new line 



LAND 37 

of railway, branch, additional tracks, side track, station, straightening, 
widening or otherwise. If authorized, quote the date and caption of the 
authority. 

5. State whether the land is to be conveyed in fee absolutely, or merely 
right of way granted. 

6. If the land is to be acquired for widening or straightening, state 
whether the owner agrees to include the old roadbed or right of way in 
the fee simple conveyance to be made. 

7. State the price to be paid, total or per acre, and what amount, if 
any, has been paid on account. 

8. Ascertain from the owner, and state whether the land is clear of all 
incumbrances, or what mortgages, judgments, or other liens, are against 
it ; it must be agreed that all liens are to be removed. 

9. State if any, and what, special covenants and conditions have been 
agreed upon relative to fences, crossings, right of carriage way, use of 
land, restrictions, or any other matter which should be mentioned in the 
deed. 

10. Procure from the owner a memorandum of his title deeds, and 
state them here. If inherited, state from whom and when. 

11. Ascertain and state if any tenant is on the land to be conveyed, 
and whether the tenant is to give up possession or is to remain as tenant; 
if to remain, state name of tenant, and terms of lease, and if the whole 
property leased is to be conveyed, the lease should be produced and 
transferred by the owner. 

12. State any other matters relative to the land, or the purchase, 
necessary, or interesting to know. If any buildings are on the premises, 
describe them and give an estimate of their value. State whether or not 
the buildings are insured, and if insured, give a memorandum and 
description of the policies and advice whether policies will be transferred 
and assigned to the purchaser, or canceled. State if there are any special 
easements existing on or over the property. 

An agreement of sale may be made by any person owning 
land in his or her own individual right, or by Executor or Trustee 
under a will or deed, if properly authorized by the will or deed. 
The husband of a married woman must join with her in making 
an agreement. An administrator of the estate of decedent, 
dying without a will, has no right to agree for, or sell, or con- 
vey land or right of way, but the land in such case descends to 
the heirs and widow or widower, and they must all agree to sell 



38 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

and convey. Neither a guardian of minor children, nor an 
Executor or Trustee, who is not empowered by will or deed, has 
the right to sell, or convey, without special authorit}^ from the 
proper court; but they may make conditional agreements sub- 
ject to approval b}" the court. In all such cases the proper expla- 
nations should be given. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Law of Operations Preliminar}' to Construction, J. C. Wait, 1900, 
New York. (Gives rights in real property, boundaries, etc.) 

Theor}^ and Practice of Surveying, J. B. Johnson, 1913, Xew York. 

Land Surveying, F. Hodgman, 1907, Climax, ]\Iich. 

^Manual of Surveving Instructions for the Survev of the Public Lands. 
1902 (1908), Washington. 



CHAPTER III 
GRADING 

15. Sections. — Fig. 22 shows the standard sections of the 
Pennsylvania Railroad. A sod line is not used and the sub- 
ballast, composed of a 12-in. layer of cinders, extends to the edge 
of the grade. In these plans the surface of the sub-grade is given 
a slope of J in. per foot away from the center. Where any side 
track is parallel and adjacent to the main, the layer of sub- 
ballast is continued, forming the ballast for the side track. In 
this case, however, it is not extended to the edge of the grade, 
but the ballast ends a foot from the gauge line of the outside 
rail, the grade extending 3 ft. 6 in. beyond this to the ditch 
in cuts, and 4 ft. 6 in. to the edge of the bank in fills. 

A sod fine on the edge of the roadbed protects the grade and 
prevents erosion, besides presenting a very neat appearance. 
It is used by such roads as the New York Central, Pennsylvania 
Lines and Illinois Central, although some engineers object to 
to it on the ground that it may retain water and prevent free 
drainage. 

The American Railway Engineering Association considers 
that the track in excavation is placed upon what is virtually a 
low embankment, and in order to preserve uniformity of con- 
ditions immediately under the track throughout the line recom- 
mends that the width of sub-grade in excavations should be 
made the same as on embankments, outside of which sufficient 
room should be allowed for side ditches. 

Where the character of the soil is poor, drains should be 
provided of vitrified pipe laid in trenches filled with broken 
stone or similar material. These should be laid to a depth of 

39 



40 



RAILWAY MAIXTEXAXCE 




03 
O 



c8 

.2! 

> 

1 






T 
O 









t,te-.>*''' -"-'•' -fi-^r* 



GRADING 41 

at least 3 ft. 6 ins. below the base of rail for ordinary bad mate- 
rial, and more if necessary, and empty into side ditches low 
enough to permit the drains to empty themselves freely. 

16. Drainage. — One of the most difficult and important 
problems the maintenance of way engineer has to meet is the 
question of keeping water away from the track. In all cuts side 
ditches should be built large enough to carry off freely all the 
surface water and drainage that can come to them. The size 
required for these ditches will vary, depending upon the amount 
of water they will have to take care of, the rate of grade of the 
ditch, the character of the material in which it is dug, etc. 

It is difficult to give any rule for the size of side ditches. 
Those shown on the sections of the Pennsylvania Roadbed, 
Fig. 22, represent" the minimum size for average conditions of 
lengths of cuts, materials, grades, etc., the size to be increased 
when any of these conditions are unfavorable enough to re- 
quire it. 

In order to reduce the size of side ditches in cuts to reason- 
able dimensions, the water outside of the immediate grading 
should be taken care of independently to as great an extent as 
possible by surface ditches beyond the top of the slope. These 
are also of value in preventing sloughing of the slopes, which 
tend to fill up the side ditches, and as a further aid to this the 
slopes should be dressed and sodded. 

When for similar reasons, surface ditches are necessary at 
the foot of the slopes of embankments, there should be provided 
a sufficient berm to prevent undermining the embankment or 
the sloughing of the slopes from filling the ditches. The slopes 
of fills should also be grassed or covered with material which 
will prevent to as great a degree as practicable their sloughing. 

In bad cuts tihng of the ditches is frequently resorted to 
with excellent results. The tile best adapted to this purpose is 
ordinary farm tile, which may be laid in cinders and covered 
with marsh hay. On top of this the soil is filled in, the hay pre- 
venting the dirt entering the joints of the tile, the surrounding 
bed of cinders affording an opportunity for the water to get into 
the tile. 



42 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



The side ditches should be kept clean and free from all obstruc- 
tions which may interfere with the passage of the water. In 
cuts during the wet season the ditches frequently become filled 
with material which has been sloughed down from the sides of 
the cut. This was formerly removed by shovehng out and load- 




FiG. 23. — American Railway Ditcher. 



ing onto cars. Ditching machines are now quite generally used 
for this purpose and have greatly reduced the cost of handling 
this material, as well as enabling the work to be carried on in 
a much more expeditious manner than was possible when manual 
labor was employed. 

These ditchers (Fig. 23) are small steam shovels running 



GRADING 



43 



on a movable track placed on top of the flat cars which are to 
be loaded. 

The curves given in Fig. 24 show the estimated cost of hand- 






Sw 


k 








^ 


1 




.■*=^-$ 


g. 


s? 






1 


i 




^0 — 


J° ° ° °L 


^=^ 





American Double -Ditcher Work Train 



1500 



35 




14-00 






1300 


,0^0 




1200 


4- 










1100 


o 






.^5 




1000 


T3 


v/) 


" 







900 





^ 


800 


Si 


(> 


700 


o 






o 


^ 




. 5 


o 


f)00 




U 




CL 




500 


•»- 






^n 






oio 




4-00 



V 




























C\ 








Ditch 1 to 2 -ft: deep. 

~ Exoava ting Capacity of each Ditcher 
50 cu.yds.perhoun 




00 


\ 






V 


\\ 


\ 




Cost per cu.yd. = 




- 




\ 


\ 


\ 




Ci/. y(a^5. per day = 

1 1 I.I 1 i 1 


\ 


^ 


^ 


\C 


k, 






















\ 


<? 


^ 


r^ 


^C 












H" 


.y 


,^^' 






\ 




^ 




^. 






o<»^ 






:> 


,^- 










k: 


<0 


:^i 


:::a 


< 


•'^i 

^ *■ 




^^'' 




!-"" 














>^ 


:^ 


=^ 


ig 


^ 


;:-'' 












,^^^ 


^^^' 

^^^ 




:,-- 






^^ 




::::^ 


^ 


§ 




->• 






'"^^•^ 


r^ 












^ 


' 


^^"l 

^'2.'^ 

^C^' 


'<^' 






















































































Fig. 24. 



200 
100 



"34 5 67 8 9 

Actual Working Hours. 
-Cost of Handling Material with Double Ditcher Train. 



10 



ling material with a double-ditcher train. As will be noted, the 
cost varies considerably, according to the number of hours the 
machine can work on the track undisturbed by other trains. 
The curves are based on the following data: 



44 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

Daily Cost: 

Two operators at $125 per month $9 . 60 

Two firemen 3 . 00 

Interest on cars and ditchers 4. 14 

Depreciation on cars and ditchers 4 . 78 

Oil, waste, etc 1 . 00 

Coal 5 . 00 

Locomotive coal, etc 15 . 00 

Train crew 25 . 00 

Repairs 2.00 

Labor at $1 .50 per dsLV 6 . 00 

$75.52 

Conditions. — Train — Four air dump cars, 80 cubic yards capacity, two 
flat cars, one water car. Speed — 20 miles per hour. Switch — 2 miles to 
run. 

Even with well-proportioned side ditches it is desirable to 
carry the water under the track and away from the roadbed 
wherever it is possible to do so. 

Shdes seem in general to be caused by the action of water, 
although in some cases they may be due to the removal of 
material at the bottom of a slope or hill disturbing the equihbrium 
of the mass. The slide most commonly met with is that where 
the earth moves on a bed of rock which has become wet and 
slipper^^ These are frequently of ven.^ large extent, as the Dry- 
noch Slide on the Canadian Pacific Railway, which is about 
1500 ft. wide where it crosses the track and extends back into 
the hills for over 2 miles, the upper end of the slide being 
2000 ft. above the track. 

This slide closely resembles a glacier in action, being very 
slow in movement, averaging only about 10 ft. per annum. 
The probable cause is water saturating a stratum of clay over 
a smooth bed-rock. 

The following description of a sUde in a cut on the Cairo 
Di\dsion of the Big Four is typical of the trouble experienced 
in opening up new cuts. The cut was laid out with 1^ to 1 side 
slopes and was protected, as was believed, from the injurious 
effect of surface drainage by ample surface ditches. As the work 
progressed it developed that the material consisted of a yellow 



GRADING 45 

clay resting on a blue slate rock. Shortly after the opening of 
traffic, heavy rainstorms occurred and the clay began to move, 
finally blocking traffic completely. To open the cut steam shovels 
were installed on each side of the cut on top and something over 
175,000 cu.yd. of earth was removed. This reheved the pres- 
sure on the slide and no further trouble was experienced.* 

17. Construction of the Roadbed. — Before the grading of the 
roadway is commenced, it is necessary to clear and grub the right 
of way if the line runs through timbered country. The speci- 
fications for the formation of the roadway recommended by the 
American Railway Engineering Association provide that f 

the right of way and station grounds, except any portions thereof that 
may be reserved, shall be cleared of all trees, brush and parishable 
materials which shall be burned or otherwise removed from the ground. 

Stumps of trees shall be cut close to the ground, not higher than 
the stump diameter for trees twelve (12) ins. and less in diameter, and 
not higher than eighteen (18) ins. for trees whose stump diameter exceeds 
twelve (12) ins., except between slope stakes of embankments, where 
stumps may be cut so that the depth of filling over them shall not be 
less than two and one-half (2 J) ft. 

Stumps shall be grubbed entirely from all places where excavations 
occur, including ground from which material is to be borrowed. Grub- 
bing is also required between the slope stakes of all embankments of 
less than two and one-half (2J) ft. in height. 

The methods employed in grading the roadbed, while vary- 
ing considerably to meet the character of the country through 
which the road runs, can be divided into two general classes 
which will cover most cases. First, where the material is handled 
by teams, and second where steam shovels are used. The first 
class is applicable where the quantities are small and the haul 
short, and the second in the case of heavy work and long hauls. 

Considering first team work. On hauls of from 100 to 600 
ft., the wheel scraper illustrated in Figs. 25 and 26 will move 
earth very cheaply, and with the larger sized scrapers earth can 

* Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 10, Part 2, 1909, pp. 1023-1093. 
t Manual 1911, pp. 21, 22. 



46 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



be moved economically up to 1000 ft. under certain conditions. 
The scrapers should be used in gangs of ten to fifteen, according 
to the distance the material has to be hauled. The ground 




Fig. 25. — Grading with Wheel Scrapers. 



should be first plowed deep, one to three furrows being thrown 
one way. Beginning at the ends of the furrows, the operator 
should grasp the lever with one hand, throwing it forward, and 




Fig. 26. — Western Wheel Scraper in Position to Load. 

when the scraper is filled bear down on the lever until the latch 
catches on the scraper-pan. It is desirable to have an extra or 
snap team in the pit to assist in loading the larger scrapers hold- 
ing one-half a yard or more. 



GRADING 47 

The horses should be kept at a fast walk while the scraper 
is being dumped. On banks of 6 ft. or less it is customary to 
dump down hill over the end of the embankment. When the 
point of the pan reaches the end of the embankment, the back 
end of the pan is raised by the handle and lever until the point 
of the pan catches on the ground; the team will then pull it 
over. 

Where the material is obtained from borrow pits alongside of 
the roadbed or in cuts where it is wasted with short hauls, and in 
fact for all conditions of very short haul, slip or drag scrapers are 
generally used. These are shown in Fig. 27. 




Fig. 27. — Western Slip or Drag Scraper. 



For hauls too long to use scrapers to advantage it is neces- 
sary to employ wagons; these are generally of about 1^ yds. 
capacity, and while formerly loaded by hand are now generally 
filled by elevating graders, as shown in Fig. 28. The graders 
are also sometimes used instead of the slip scrapers to exca- 
vate the material from side borrow and deposit it directly on 
the roadbed. 

The steam shovel is a further step away from the scraper 
than the elevating grader. As shown in Fig. 29, the type gen- 
erally used in railway work is mounted on standard-gauge 
trucks for ease in transportation. 

When in operation the shovel works from its own track, which 
consists of short sections, and as the shovel digs its way through 



48 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



the bank these sections are taken up from the rear and placed 
ahead of the shovel, thus providing a sufficient length of track for 




Fig. 28. — Western Elevating Grader. 




Fig. 29.— 70 C Bucyrus Steam Shovel. 



each move. The force required to operate the shovel consists 
of a pit gang of four or five laborers who lay the sections of 



GRADING 



49 



track and arrange the supports for the jack arms on the side of 
the shovel. These latter are screws working in tw^o arms, one on 
each side of the shovel near the front. The lower part of the 
screw rests on wooden planks and steadies the shovel when 
digging. 

On the shovel are two men, the engineer and the cranesman. 
The cranesman stands on a platform attached to the crane 
which revolves wdth it, and his duties are to control the dipper 
as it digs into the bank and dump it when the engineer swings it 
over the cars to be loaded. 




Fig. 30. — Marion Steam Shovel in a Through Cut. 



Steam shovel work may be roughly divided into two general 
classes. 1st, where the shovel widens out the grade without 
lowering it, Fig. 29, and 2d, where it is necessary to lower the 
grade. Fig. 30. In the first class a common case is where it is 
desired to widen an existing cut, as shown in Fig. 31. Here the 
shovel is cut into the side of the hill from the main track at B 
and digs its way through the cut, loading the material onto cars 
which are handled on the main fine. The switch at B is gene- 
rally left in, and as the shovel moves along, the track is extended. 
This gives the shovel a chance to back out of the way in case of 



50 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



slides, and when long enough furnishes a track for the dirt train 
to get in the clear of trains on the main line. * 

Fig. 32 illustrates the sequence of operations in lowering the 
gi^ade in an existing cut. After the first cut is made the steam 




Fig. 31. — Steam Shovel Widening Cut. (Hermann.) 

shovel track is used for the loading track for the second cut and 
so on until the excavation is down to the desired grade. 

The output of the shovel depends largely upon the num- 
ber of cars which can be supphed to it. If it is continually em- 




^\^ Cut . \^ ,Jllv, / ^^ 

Fig. 32. — Steam Shovel Lowering Cut. (Hermann.) 



plo3^ed in loading, the output is large, especially when working 
in a bank of sufficient face not to require too frequent moving. 
On account of the long hauls of the cars before they are un- 
loaded, especially if they are handled over the main track to the 

* Steam Shovels and Steam Shovel Work. E. A. Hermann, 1894, 
Engineering News Publishing Co., New York, pp. 20 and 30. 



GRADING 



51 



dumping ground, the shovel is often idle a considerable part of 
the time waiting for cars and the full capacity is not reached. 

In loading the cars a spotting engine is generally used at the 
pit to keep the cars delivered to the shovel. The spotting engine 
makes up the trains of loaded cars ready for the road engines 
and in general does the necessary switching at the pit tracks. 

The cars used may be flat-bottom cars which are unloaded 
by a plow attached to a steel cable (Fig. 33). This cable is 




Fig. 33. — Left Hand Bucyrus Side Plow at Work on the Erie Railroad. 



connected to an unloading mill consisting of a drum for winding 
up the cable, or is fastened to the engine, which is disconnected 
from the train, the brakes set on the cars, and the engine pulls 
the plow over the cars. In place of fiat cars, dump cars are now 
generally used, as shown in Figs. 34 and 105. These may 
be operated by air and the unloading of a train can be accom- 
plished in a much more satisfactory manner than by means of 
a plow and cable, although when an unloading mill is employed 
the latter method loses many of its disadvantages. 

The shovel generally employed in railway work is a 70- to 80- 
ton machine with a 2^-yd. dipper. The dump cars for short 
hauls of less than a mile should have a capacity of about 6 yds., 



62 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



for longer hauls 12 yd. cars may be employed advantageously, 
and for hauls of considerable length cars of 20 or 30 yds. capacity 
will be found economical. Flat cars are generally standard- 
size cars with stakes set in the side pockets to guide the plow 
and provided with steel aprons between the cars to prevent the 
dirt getting on the track. The plow should w^eigh about 7 tons 
and when pulled by an engine and drum the latter should be 
able to develop a 60-ton pull. 

In places away from the main line, as on revisions or new 
roads, the steam shovels usually load into narrow-gauge cars. 




Fig. 34.— 12-yd. Western Air-dump Cars Filling Trestle. 



When the line remains unchanged but has to be widened for 
additional tracks, the material can be loaded into standard-gauge 
dump cars, and after being dumped is spread out by a spreader. 
These machines are shown in Fig. 35, and will spread for a dis- 
tance of 17 ft. from the center of the track, leveling the grade 
so the track can be placed upon it without further w^ork. 

The wings of the spreader are operated by air supplied b}^ 
the train pipe and can be readily adjusted to any height desired; 
in second-track work they are frequently used to level the ballast 
preparatory to placing the ties. 



GRADING 



53 



18. Construction Contract. — On account of the large magni- 
tude of many of the works under the direction of the railway 
engineer, the contract which provides for their execution should 
be very carefully drawn up. On many roads this contract has 
been the result of growth, the earlier forms having clauses added 
to them from time to time as new conditions would arise. 

To simplify and make uniform the different contract forms 
used throughout the country, a special committee was appointed 
on Uniform General Contract Forms by the American Railway 
Engineering Association. In working out a standard form, the 



ffil&tSi; 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K^m^^^if^ 


m 






■% ^ - / "' ■ 




^^^^^^s 






^bI 


P^ - 



Fig. 35.— Mann-McCann Spreader. 



committee first prepared a synopsis of all the necessary require- 
ments and arranged them logically in skeleton form and then 
developed clauses around them in as simple and direct language 
as was possible. 

The resulting form, while as concise as it could well be made, 
consistent with clearness and accuracy, was, nevertheless, quite 
large, and to provide for unimportant work the plan of having 
an agreement form of two pages separate from the general con- 
tract conditions was recommended. In small or unimportant con- 
tracts this agreement form may be used alone, but in larger 
contracts the ^' general conditions statement^ ^ may be inserted, 
using the agreement form as a folder with the introductory page 
at the beginning of the contract and the signature at the end. 



54 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

In addition to the contract conditions, specifications relating 
to the particular work should form part of the contract. These 
may either be included in the folder or attached to the back.* 

19. Bearing Power of the Subgrade. — A knowledge of the 
bearing power of the roadway or subgrade is of a great deal of 
importance on account of the increasing tendency toward heavier 
loading of the track. 

The influence of the character of the roadway is well shown 
by the following case reported by Mr. A. G. Wells, General 
Manager of the Atchinson, Topeka & Santa Fe:j 

From Seligman to Barstow our track is laid with eighty-five-pound 
rails; the density of the traffic is practically the same over every foot of 
it. Between Yucca and Barstow, a distance of 227 miles, the subgrade 
is sandy, porous, and well drained: between Yucca and Seligman, a 
distance of 91 miles, the subgrade is largely clay, of a kind that holds 
water. From November, 1907, to October, 1908, we had eighty-three 
rail breakages on the territory first named, or a percentage of .001; on 
the other stretch we had in the same period sevent3^-two breakages, the 
percentage being .0025, or, in other words, where the subgrade was dense 
and more or less clay, the breakages per mile were two and one-half times 
greater than where the subgrade was sandy. 

The inertia of the roadbed plays an important part in strength- 
ening the track when the maximum loads imposed upon it 
do not occur too frequently, as is the case with high-speed pas- 
senger trains where the most destructive forces to be provided 
for are those produced by the drivers of the locomotive. In the 
case of dense freight traffic where the heavy loads imposed by 
the engine drivers are followed by the passage of a long train, 
thus subjecting the track to a continuing load lasting over a 
considerable interval of time, the inertia of the roadbed is, in a 
great measure, overcome and a correspondingly lower value 
for the allowable pressure on the roadbed must be used. 

The all-steel 70-ton coal cars, which are coming into use on 
some of the large coal-carrying roads in the East, weigh over 

* See references in bibliography at end of chapter, 
t Railroad Age Gazette, April 9, 1909. 



GRADING 55 

50,000 lbs., and have a capacity of 140,000 lbs. This weight 
is carried on four axles, and a train composed of these cars would 
prove very destructive to the roadbed unless an ample provision 
was made for the effect of the repeated application of the heavy 
wheel loads. 

The bearing power of the subgrade is such an important 
factor in proportioning the track that it will prove profitable 
to examine what takes place when the soil is subjected to pressure. 

The bearing power depends upon the angle of repose. When 
this is not known it may be determined by the following test, 
suggested by the Committee on Roadway of the American Rail- 
way Engineering Association.* 

Measure the force required to cause slipping of two portions 
of the earth past e^ch other when subjected to a known pressure, 
and, 

Q 
tan0 = -, 

where (/> = angle of repose ; 

Q = force required to cause slipping; 
P = pressure on earth. 

Earth which has an angle of repose of at least 27 degrees may 
be considered as firm. Sand, gravel and damp clay are classed 
as firm soils; however, these may become so saturated with 
water that their angles of repose will become considerably less 
than 27 degrees, hence precaution must be taken against too 
much water by draining the ground in the immediate vicinity 
of the roadbed. Particular care must be taken in the case of 
clay, or sand which will become a kind of quicksand when satur- 
ated with water. 

The water which destroys the bearing power of such soils 
may come from below by capillary attraction, and the drainage 
should be carried to a depth sufficient to prevent this. Semi- 

* Proceedings, Vol. 13, 1912, p. 395. 



56 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

fluid soils, such as quicksand, allu\dum, etc., should be removed 
where practicable or the foundation carried to a lower stratum. 
If in Fig. 36 we let 

a: = depth of ballast (from top of tie to subgrade); 
p = maximum supporting power per sq. ft. of the subgrade; 
pi = pressure exerted on subgrade midway between ties; 
7 = weight of 1 cu. ft. of ballast; 
</) = angle of repose of subgrade ; 



Ballast X 

\P, P 

Subgrade ^ "^ 

Fig. 36. — Resistance of Sub-grade to Pressure of the Track. 

xy will then equal the vertical intensity of the pressure caused 
by the weight of the ballast on the subgrade midwa}^ between 
the ties. This pressure is augmented by the pressure transmitted 
from the tie, and, while this is much less between the ties than 
immediately underneath a tie, it is, nevertheless, an important 
factor in strengthening the surface of the roadbed. 

If we assume this extra pressure on the roadbed midwa^^ 
between the ties to equal in amount that caused by the weight 
of the ballast, we can then write 

pi = 27 X 

Now when the ballast is about to sink : 

V lH-sin(i) 1 — sine/) 

- = -, ov q = p—, . /-r. , . N 

q 1 — sm 1 +sm </) (Rankme) 

But when the roadbed under the tie is on the point of sinking, 



GRADING 



57 



the part of the roadbed between the ties must be on the point of 
rising, or 

q _l+sin (/) 

pi 1 — sin 0^ 
and the supporting power of the subgrade or p is 

fl+sin(/)l2 fi_|_sinc/>l2 



q^q = V 



1 — sin ^ 



1 — sm 

1+sin </) 
Vr 



1+sin ' ^1 — sin ^^ 
For convenience the values of 



V = Vi 




1+sin 1 2 . . 

\ are given in 



1 — sm (/) 
Table III and for 7 in Table IV. 

This apparently would be a safe assumption for a depth of 
gravel ballast under the tie of 18 ins. and 12 ins. of stone. 



TABLE III 



T7 r 1+sin </)\ 

Values of < > 

I 1 — sin J 



</>. 


/l+sin0\2 
ll -sin</)J 


4>. 


j 1 +sin 4> 1 2 
' 1 -sin </) ' 


10 


2.0 


26 


6.6 


11 


2.2 


27 


7.1 


12 


2.3 


28 


7.7 


13 


2.5 


29 


8.3 


14 


2.7 


30 


0.0 


15 


2.9' 


31 


9.7 


16 


3.1 


32 


10.6 


17 


3.3 


33 


11.5 


18 


3.6 


34 


12.5 


19 


3.9 


35 


13.6 


20 


4.2 


36 


14.8 


21 


4.5 


37 


16.2 


22 


4.8 


38 


17.6 


23 


5.2 


39 


19.4 


24 


5.7 


40 


21.2 


25 


6.1 







58 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



TABLE IV 
Weights of Ballast 
Values of t 



Name of Ballast. 


Average Weight, in 

Pounds per Cubic 

Foot. 


Gravel 

Sand.. ....: 

Sand perfect h' wet 

Stone, crushed 


90 to 105 

90 to 105 

120 to 130 

90 to 110 



It can be readily seen that as the depth of the ballast increases 
the value of pi increases quite rapidly both on account of the 
actual greater weight of the ballast represented by the term xjy 
and also by the better distribution of the tie pressure. Each of 
these factors tends to prevent the rising of the subgrade between 
the ties and thus increases the supporting power of the soil under 
the tie. 

If we assume that the value of p is 1.0 to 1.5 tons per square 
foot, by applying the above formula we find that this corre- 
sponds to a soil with an angle of repose of from 23 degrees to 
31 degrees for 12 ins. of stone ballast or 18 ins. of gravel 
ballast under the tie. Rankine^s tables show that these angles 
of repose fall within the limits given for dry sand, clay and mixed 
earth. This agrees very well with what might be expected. 
The principal value of the formulae, however, would appear to 
lie in comparative rather than in actual values.* 

In estimating the bearing power of the subgrade, it should 
be borne in mind that the resistance is very much lowered if the 
ballast is allowed to penetrate and mix with the soil, as is the 
case when stone or crushed slag are placed directly on a soft 
subgrade without the use of a proper layer of sub-ballast of 
gravel or cinders. (Refer to Fig. 106.) 

* Compare with discussion of bearing power of soils in Retaining Walls 
for Earth, M. A. Howe, 1896, John WHey & Sons, New York, p. 37. 



GRADING 59 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Sections 

Manual Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, p. 20. 

Maintenance of Way Standards on American Railways, F. A. Smith, 
1906, New York, pp. 529-541 (gives standard sections on a number of 
different roads). 

Drainage 

Drainage of Soft Spots in Old Roadbed, W. M. Dawley, Proceedings 
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 8, 1907, pp. 541-554. 

Tiling of Wet Cuts and the Curing of Slides, ibid., pp. 555-583. 
Discussion on Earth Slides, H. Rohwer, ibid,, Vol. 9, 1908, pp. 398-403. 
Slides and Washouts, ibid., Vol. 10, Part 2, 1909, pp. 1023-1093. 

Construction of the Roadway 

Specifications for the Formation of the Roadway, Manual, Am. Ry. 
Eng. Assn., 1911. 

Railroad Construction, Crandall and Barnes, 1913, New York, 
pp. 1-86. 

Steam Shovels and Steam Shovel Work, E. A. Hermann, 1894, New 
York. 

Railroad Construction, W. L. Webb, 1913, New York, pp. 65-158. 

Cost of Steam Shovel Work, J. C. Sesser, Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. 
Assn., Vol. 8, 1907, pp. 324-342. 

Construction Contract 

General Contract Requirements, Manual Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, 
pp. 18, 19. 

Specifications for the Formation of the Roadway, ibid., pp. 21-31. 

Construction Contract, Supplement to Manual, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 
1913, pp. 87-96. 

The Law of Contracts, J. C. Wait, 1901, New York. 

Engineering Contracts and Specifications, J. B. Johnson, 1904. 

Bearing Power of the Subgrade 

Retaining Walls for Earth, M. A. Howe, 1914, New York, p. 37 
(contains treatment of the supporting power of soils). 

Movements of Ground Water, by F. H. King and C. S. Slichter, 1899, 
Government Printing Office, Washington. 



CHAPTER IV 

BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS 

20. Masonry Culverts.— The most satisfactory construction 
for small main line openings above a 4-ft. span is generally the 
reinforced concrete arch culvert. The standard design of the 
Pennsylvania Railroad for these culverts having spans from 4 
to 10 ft. is shown in Fig. 37 and consists of an eUiptical section 
in which the bottom of the culvert or the bed of the stream has 
a radius equal to the span, and the sides start with the same 
radius, drawing in to a smaller radius at the top. 

Fig. 38 shows a section of a reinforced concrete culvert at 
Kilton on the North Eastern Railway. This culvert is 435 ft. 
in length, of which 275 ft. in the middle is of the section shown. 
Toward the end the thickness at the crown diminishes 2 ins. 
at a time to 12 ins. at the inlet and outlet, and the thickness 
at X similarly diminishes to 1 ft. 9 ins. at the ends.* 

21. Pile and Frame Trestles.— There are two general kinds 
of wooden trestle bridges: the pile trestle, in which the bents 
consist of piles, and the frame trestle with the bents composed 
of square timbers framed together. The pile trestle is not suit- 
able for heights above 30 or 35 ft., but framed trestles may 
be constructed to much greater heights. 

In the earlier days of railroad building the mileage of wooden 
trestles in this country was very large and Cooper states t 

that the relative amount of bridges and trestles varies (1889) in dif- 
ferent districts from 58 ft. per mile to 231 ft. per mile. This last, 

* Reinforced Concrete Railway Structures, J. D. W. Ball, 1914, D. Van 
Nostrand Co., New York, p. 181. a a f 

t American Railroad Bridges, Theodore Cooper, Trans. Am. hoc. ot 
Civil Engrs., July, 1889. Vol. XXI, p. 44. 

60 







■>k-ff' 



r1r. 



i 



/(?'(?' 



Stone 
[ Jtn 



— Reinfc 





ft. Culverl 



14' 9^"forl0' Span\ 
IZ'5"„-< 5' ., I . 

9'5^ .< 6' ^'"^ 

7' 3 " " -f ' 




5ize 

.of 
Culvert 


Area 

of 

Ofening 

5q.ft. 


Concrete 


Reinforcing Rods 


Volume 


Weght 


Per lin.ft. 
of 

Cu. vds. 


Wings 
Porta 5 

etc. 
Cu.vds. 


Per lin.ft 

Barrel 
Lbs. 


etc. 
Lbs. 


■9- ft. 


/0.7S 


0.8 


14.5 


16 


/25 


6 ft 


23.S 


1.4 


26.5 


25 


200., 


8ft. 


43.5 


2.3 


48.0 


68 


750 


/Oft 


67.5 


3.4 


77.5 


98 


975 



'/o'forlO'Sp 



^~f Stone Paving on Down 
Stream End only 



>\/6f-g Dia.Pods for •^' Span 

»t/i5|<;C" " " S' .. 
^/2&i n .. „ W' „ 




Longitudinal Section.' End Elevation. 

Fig. 37. — Reinforced Concrete Arch Culverts, Pennsylvania Railroad. 



To face page i 



BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS 



61 



however, is excessive, from including the crossing of Lake Pontchartrain 
near New Orleans, on a trestle 22 miles long. Omitting this, we would 
get only 162 ft. per mile as a maximum. 

The use of these temporary structures was one of the charac- 
teristics of American railway construction at that period and 
enabled the large amount of new lines to be completed at a much 
cheaper cost and more rapidly than would otherwise have been 




a'o" 



^^^''i"f^od5: ^ 2'0"Cenfer5 



>< - 






e'o"- 



FfG. 38. — Kilton Culvert, North Eastern Railway. (Ball.) 



possible. As an instance of this may be cited the construction 
of the Canadian Pacific Railway. This company made a con- 
tract wdth the Canadian government on October 21, 1880, to 
complete the line to the Pacific Coast in ten years, but owing to 
the large amount of temporary work employed the company 
was enabled to open its line from the St. Lawrence River to the 
Pacific Coast in November, 1885, and to earn $20,000,000 in the 
year fixed for the completion of the contract.* 

* Engineering News, Nov. 28, 1895. 



62 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

While the use of wooden trestles is not as common as was 
formerly the case, this kind of bridge is still largely used on lines 
having light traffic, and probably will continue to be used for 
some time. 

Fig. 39 illustrates the standard trestle used on the Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad. Many variations from this design are found 
on different roads. Eight stringers, 8X16 ins., four under each 
rail, are sometimes used. Some roads use ties 12 or 14 ft. long, 
and place jack stringers 8X16 ins. near the end of the ties; 
18-in. I-beams, three under each rail, are used to replace the 
wooden stringers on one road. 

The double cap, one cap being placed on top of another, 
is considered good practice b}^ some engineers, and the use of a 
corber between the cap and the stringer has been employed. 

One of the principal objections to the wooden trestle is the 
danger of fire being started on the bridge from sparks or coals 
from locomotives. The Railwa}' Commission of Canada require 
that railroads fireproof their bridges, and order 

That every railway compan}' subject to the legislative authority 
of the parliament of Canada operating by steam power any railway or 
railways, any part or parts of which is or are constructed of, or upon, 
wooden trestles, the whole of which cannot be seen from an approaching 
train for a distance of at least one thousand feet, do, during the months 
of l\Iay, June, July, August, September and October of each 3^ear, pro- 
vide, place and keep a watchman, trackwalker, fire alarm signals, ballast 
flooring, zinc covering over caps and intersections, or approved fire- 
proof paint, as hereinafter directed, for the purpose of protecting the said 
trestles from fire; each said company having the option of adopting any 
of the said foregoing methods of protection. 

The American Railway Bridge and Building Association 
gives the following as the types of fireproofing used mostl}^ at 
the present time: 

A. Ballast floor pile bridges; about the same amount of 
ballast being placed under the tie on bridges as on an embank- 
ment. 

B. Metal covering on the ties. 






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64 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



C. Ballast covering from 2 to 4 ins. thick on the ties; a wood 
filler being placed between the ties to support the ballast. 

D. Metal covering on the caps and stringers. 

E. Metal covering on the ties with 2 ins. of ballast thereon. 

F. Ordinary pile bridges built with certain kinds of treated 
timber. 

G. Fire-resisting paints. 

H. Pile bridges having I-beam stringers. 

22. Concrete Trestles. — In railroad construction in the West 
and South, it was, and is still quite generally the practice to bridge 
unimportant streams, bayous and marshes with timber or pile 




Fig. 40. — Concrete Trestle. 



trestles. As the cost of timber increases and as the standards 
of the line are raised, these structures have been replaced with 
more permanent work. There are, however, many cases in "this 
territory of long timber trestles over river bottoms and swamps 
where it is not practicable to replace the trestles with more 
p3rmanent steel bridges on account of their expense. 

These conditions have apparently been met successfully by 
the use of a concrete trestle (Fig. 40) following closely the main 
features of the timber trestle, using concrete piles and reinforced 
concrete stringers. 

This type of pile-trestle was first designed by Mr. Cartlidge 
and has been in use on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Rail- 
road long enough to warrant the view that it is a durable and 



BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS 65 

satisfactory form of construction. It apparently may be used to 
replace wooden trestles of low and medium height where the 
features of short span and adaptation to ground slope are advan- 
tageous, and where conditions will otherwise warrant the expen- 
diture.* 

23. Pipe Culverts. — Cast-iron pipe was formerly very largely 
employed for small openings. The principal objections to this 
pipe are first of all its weight, which makes the expense of handliug 
high, especially on new lines where it may have to be hauled by 
teams for considerable distances, and second the fact that under 
high fills, unless very firmly supported, many pipes crack and 
break. 

The advantage lies in the fact that it will not depreciate 
and will last indefinitely when properly placed and not subjected 
to excessive loading. 

This pipe is now sometimes made in 3- and 4-ft. sections for 
greater ease of handling in place of the former 12-ft. sections. 
These smaller sections have interlocking joints, which gives 
practically a continuous tube construction. 

Corrugated metal culverts (Fig. 41), are now being used 
extensively for small openings under light railways. The nest- 
able construction of these culverts makes their transportation 
easy, and the use of the corrugated metal gives relatively high 
strength for the weight of metal used. Steel on account of its 
liability to rust cannot be used successfully for this purpose, 
and it is necessary to use wrought iron or some metal having 
non-corrosive qualities. 

Probably one of the greatest advantages of the corrugated 
culvert is the ability of these pipes to maintain a clear water- 
way under a settling or shifting embankment. In the construc- 
tion of the Northwestern Pacific these pipes were used and in one 
case of a 48-in. pipe which moved down hill, four 10-ft. lengths 
were added to the upper end.f 

Reinforced concrete culvert pipe is coming into favor in places 

* Reinforced Concrete Trestles for Railways, C. H. Cartlidge, from 
Journal of the Western Society of Egineers, Vol. XV, No. 5, October, 1910. 
t Railway Age Gazette, Feb. 19, 1915, p. 317. 



66 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




Fig. 41. — Corrugated Metal Culverts. 
A. Transporting by Teams 60-in. Culvert 40 ft. Long. 




Fk;. 41. — Corrugated Metal 

Culverts. 

(Ry. Age Gazette.) 

B. 60-in. Culvert under an 
85-ft. Fill on the Western 
Pacific. 



where a more permanent construc- 
tion is desired than that obtained 
with corrugated metal. 

Where small culverts are to be 
built, the miscellaneous expense, such 
as building material platforms, cement 
sheds, unloading tools and material, 
etc., constitutes a large proportion of 
the cost. The greater portion of this 
is avoided if concrete pipe be used. 

The cost of reinforced concrete 
culvert pipe will vary in different 
locahties, depending upon the prox- 
imity of the natural supplies of ma- 
terial and the cost of labor. Under 
ordinary conditions, however, there is 
a considerable saving over the cost of 
cast iron, especially in the larger sizes, 
where the saving may be from one- 
third to one-half. 

The American Railway Bridge and 
Building Association give the follow- 
ing relative costs per lineal foot with 



BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS 



67 



cast iron at $28.00 per ton and the market quotations for manu- 
factured concrete pipe. It will be noted that the economy is 
more marked with an increase in diameter of the pipe. 





24 in. 


30 in. 


36 in. 


48 in. 


Cast iron 

Concrete 


$2.23 
2.00 


$3.33 

2.80 


$4.66 
3.15 


$8.26 
4.50 



Fig. 42 shows the reinforcement used in the C. B. & Q. pipe. 
This road has been using reinforced concrete pipe for about 




K-- 









-s-o 

6-5--- 



l"°B-ars 



"v\ 

->|<7t^t5 



>^__:S o>j 



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II 






/S6pcs.@6"=7-6' 



■>15K- 



Fig. 42. — Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe, C. R. I. & P. Ry. and 
C. B. & Q. R. R. (Am. Ry. B. & B. Assn.) 

eight years, and are constantly increasing their output of this 
kind of culvert pipe. The sizes used run from 2 ft. to 6 ft. in 
diameter. 

24. Waterway. — Fig. 43 shows the form of record for water- 
ways recommended by the American Railway Engineering Associ- 
ation. The Association gives the following rules for fixing the 
size of the opening:* 

1. In determining the size of a given waterway, careful con- 
sideration should be given to local conditions, including flood 



* Manual, 1911, p. 40. 



68 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




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BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS 69 

height and flow, size and behavior of other openings in the vicin- 
ity carrying the same stream, characteristics of the channel 
and of the watershed area, chmatic conditions, extent and char- 
acter of traffic on the given hne of railway and probable conse- 
quences of interruptions to same, and any other elements likely 
to affect the safety or economical construction or maintenance of 
the culvert or opening. 

2. (a) The practice of using a formula to assist in fixing the 
proper size of the waterway in a given case is warranted to the 
extent that the formula and the values of the terms substituted 
therein are known to fit local conditions. 

(b) Waterway formulae are also useful as a guide in fixing 
or verifying bridge and culvert areas, where only general informa- 
tion as to local conditions is at hand. 

(c) The use of such formulae should not displace careful field 
observation and the exercise of inteUigent judgment on the part 
of the engineer. 

(d) No single waterway formula can be recommended as 
fitting all conditions of practice. 

In the design of culverts under the tracks, provision is rarely 
made for those unusual storms which only occur after long 
intervals, and in consequence structures which may have stood 
successfully for forty or fifty years are at times washed out. 
Nor is this necessarily evidence of poor engineering skill on the 
part of the builders of the road, as to construct these openings 
of sufficient capacity to insure against the possibihty of their 
ever being destroyed by water would in many cases result in an 
expense entirely out of proportion to the loss caused by their 
being washed out. If, for example, we assume that a culvert 
may be built for $2000 which would resist any possible flood, 
but instead of doing this a culvert of smaller capacity was 
actually built costing $1000 and which lasted for forty or fifty 
years, it will be seen that the compound interest at 6 per cent 
on the money saved would amount to something over $18,000 
in this time. Wellington states in this connection:* 

* Econoniics and Theory of Railway Location, A. M. Wellington, 1900, 
John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 782. 



70 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

When structures have been skilfully laid out to stand the ordinary 
contingencies of 20 or 30 yeaTS it is about all that is either practicable or 
justifiable, and the remarkable storms which come only once or tvrice in 
a century are not in fact, and hardly can be, successfully guarded against. 
This is especially true because the worst effects of even the greatest storms 
are localized within quite narrow limits. The same is, in substance, true 
of inundations of railway lines. 

The most disastrous floods of recent years w^ere those which 
occurred during the spring of 1913, in Indiana, Ohio and the 
neighboring States. A great man}" of the roads in this territory 
were built over fift}" years ago, and in spite of the great damage 
done, which in the State of Ohio alone w^as estimated at 
$10,000,000, it would not appear that the roads could have been 
economically located in the first place to withstand these extraor- 
dinary floods which occurred only after a period of half a 
century. 

It wall be observed that only about $500,000 could have 
profitably been spent at the time the roads were built, in the way 
of larger openings and a higher grade line, to guard against the 
floods which occurred fift}' 3^ears afterwards with the damage 
of $10,000,000, and it is quite improbable that this comparatively 
small sum would have been sufficient to enable the roads to be 
constructed to withstand the 1913 floods. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Reinforced Concrete Railway Structures, J. D. W. Ball, 1914, Xew 
York, pp. 97, 98, 181, 182 (contains discussion of reinforced concrete 
culverts) . 

American Railwav Bridges and Buildings, Official Reports, Assn. 
Ry. Supt. Bridges and Building, W. G. Berg, 1898, Chicago, pp. 30-34 
(report on iron and vitrified pipe) . 

A Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges, W. C. Foster, 1913, New York. 

Wooden Bridges and Trestles, Manual Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, 
pp. 129-154. 

Fireproofing for Timber Trestles, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Bridge and 
Building Assn., 1911, pp. 47-84. 

Reinforced Concrete Trestles for Railways, C. H. Cartlidge, Journal 
of the Western Society of Engineers, Vol. XV, No. 5, October, 1910. 



BRIDGES, TRESTLES AND CULVERTS 71 

Reinforced Culvert Pipe, Proceedings Am. Ry. Bridge and Building 
Assn., 1912, pp. 87-114. 

The Economic Theory of Railway Location, A. M. Wellington, 1900, 
New York, pp. 781-784. 

The Requisite Waterway of Railroad Culverts, H. W. Parkhurst, 
Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 8, 1907, pp. 314-323. 

The Best Method of Determining Size of Waterways, ibid., Vol. 10, 
Part 2, 1909, pp. 967-1022. 



CHAPTER V 
TIES 

25. Forms of. — Three methods of supportmg the rail have 
been employed. 

First. — The longitudinal or stringer. 

Second. — The pedestal. 

Third. — The eross-tie. 

The rail used in the early days of the railroads consisted of 
a thin strip of metal, and as this was not strong enough to carry 
the wheels unsupported it was necessaiy to cany the running 
strips upon stringers, which were generally of wood. As the rail 
increased in section, pedestal supports were tried. The rails 
of that time were cast in sections about 3 ft. long and rested 
on stone blocks. In some countries pedestal support is still used 
and there is a considerable mileage of track in British India and 
in the Argentine Republic supported on large cast-iron inverted 
bowls connected together with tie rods at right angles to the 
track. The Kimbal concrete tie, described in Article 27, is a 
form of pedestal support recentl}^ tried in this country. 

With pedestal support the distril)ution of pressure from the 
the rail to the subgrade is obvioush' not as uniform as with the 
cross-tie support; and for this reason, principally, pedestals are 
not adaptable for use under modern track conditions. 

Longitudinal stringers or girders under the rail have been 
tried with the idea of obtaining a better distribution of the load 
to the grade. 

The most recent experiments on longitudinal support in this 
country were those conducted by Gustav Lindenthal with the 
system of track shown in Fig. 44. This was installed at 

72 



TIES 



73 



Pomeroy, Pa., on the Pennsylvania Railroad, in 1906, and was 
under test for about two years. 

The rail joints were in the middle of each stringer length and 
it was expected that the stiffness of the sleepers would in that 
way prevent low rail joints, but this was found not to be the 
case and the track and all of the joints got low. 



Rail splice mu si not be placed- 
over jo/nl in long//-uclincil Sleeper 






Wa&heh'A £5t.Pl. g" 
Normal po5ilion. wilh 
■ Side cj toward rail 
This washer permits 
resetting of the inner rail 
on curves, so that, when 
the rail becomes much j- 
worn, the normal gage ^^^^^ 
of the track maybe -^r-,^- 

ma/nta/ned. - 




Fig. 44. — Lindenthars Longitudinal Method of Rail Support. 



The explanation for it was that the blows from locomotives 
and cars at the rail joints gradually hammered down the rail- 
road sleepers. These being very stiff, could not very well be bent 
back and straightened by merely tamping at the low places. 
In ordinary cross-tie track the rails are easily kept to the surface 
by tamping the ties harder at the rail joint. But the same 
method was not effective with longitudinal sleepers, which would 
sag more and more in spite of all ordinary attempts to surface 
them. Looking at the track (about 1000 ft. long) lengthwise, 



74 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

the low rail joints were quite conspicuous. While the sleeper 
track as a whole was singularly free from the pumping and 
wave action observable in ordinary cross-tie track, the indi- 
cations were that the stone ballast under the middle of the 
sleepers would have to acquire considerable rigidity by con- 
tinuous tamping before the rail ends would stay surfaced. 

The extensive experiments undertaken in Germany on longi- 
tudinal track systems have been attended with much the same 
results as those observed in the Pennsylvania test; and the 
conclusion arrived at from these experiments, that the longi- 
tudinal sleeper offers no advantage over the system of cross- 
ties and rails, may be considered as firmly established. 

The cross-tie track is now almost universally used, and in 
the opinion of those best qualified to judge no change is likely 
to occur from this method of rail support. 

26. Metal Ties. — From an early date various forms of metal 
cross-ties have been suggested, and a large number of steel ties 
have been tried in different countries. 

These are of two general types, the trough and the I-beam 
section. The latter seems better suited for heavy loads, and 
most of the steel ties used in this country are of the I-beam 
type, illustrated in Fig. 45. These ties cost about $2.50 each, 
complete with fastenings, and have a scrap value of about $0.75. 

Steel ties have been used quite extensively on the Union 
Railroad at Pittsburgh and on the Bessemer and Lake Erie 
Railroad. The total number of steel ties on these two roads is 
over one million, or enough to lay over 300 miles of track. 
There are a large number of steel ties of the Carnegie type in 
use through the country. The Carnegie Steel Co. has manu- 
factured three million steel ties, which are in use on twenty 
different roads. The difficulties of obtaining a satisfactory 
fastening of the rail to the tie, the insulation of the rails where 
automatic signals are used, and the question of deterioration 
due to rust, all seem in a fair way of being solved successfully, 
and the principal criticism raised against the steel tie is its 
rigidity as compared to the wood cross-tie. 

The Bessemer officials, however, state that their experience 



TIES 



75 



has led them to beheve that this greater rigidity is not detri- 
mental and is, in fact, something to be desired. 

On lines with heavy refrigerator traffic the loss due to corrosion 
should prove heavier than on the Bessemer and Lake Erie. To 
protect against this corrosion the manufacturers in some in- 
stances dip the ties in hot tar at an additional cost of about five 
cents per tie. 

It is quite probable that the life of these ties will be deter- 
mined by the strength of the upper flange. This flange is sub- 
jected to a large number of alternate repeated stresses. As the 



s'e" 

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Section 
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Section C-D. 




Fig. 45. — Carnegie Steel Tie. 



wheels pass over the rail the load tends to bend the flange down- 
ward on the side of the tie from which the wheel approaches, and 
then after the wheel passes over the tie to bend the flange in the 
opposite direction. In the new design for the Pennsylvania an 
effort has been made to strengthen the tie at this point by in- 
creasing the radius of the fillet connecting the upper flange 
with the web. 

Fig. 46 is a view of the Bessemer and Lake Erie track laid with 
steel ties. 

27. Concrete Ties. — Probably no form of reinforced concrete 
tie has been made which is suitable for heavy and high-speed 



76 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



traffic. The real field of usefulness for the concrete tie appears to 
he in its apphcation in places where speed is slow and where con- 
ditions are especially adverse to the life of wood or metal. 

The Kimbal concrete tie illustrated in Fig. 47 is composed 
of two blocks of concrete, one under each rail, connected by means 
of a heavy iron bar. Placed on top of each block of concrete is a 
block of wood upon which rests the rail. The wood blocks serve 
the double purpose of affording an elastic cushion for the rail and 
as a means of spiking the rail to the tie. 

Concrete ties do not seem to possess sufficient elasticity 
to absorb the shocks of the wheels and have a tendency to dis- 




FiG. 46.— Track Laid with Steel Ties. 



integrate under traffic. This has led to a modification of these 
ties in which the concrete is encased in a steel shell. Two designs 
of this latter type have been experimented with, the Riegler tie, 
fifteen of which were put in the main track of the Pennsylvania 
Lines, in May, 1908, where they are subject to very heavy traffic, 
and are apparently giving satisfactory service; and the Atwood 
steel tie. Several of the Atwood ties were installed on the Pitts- 
burgh and Lake Erie Railroad in October, 1908. These gave good 
results, but suggested some improvements in design. Fig. 48 
shows the most recent design of the Atwood tie. 



TIES 



77 



This tie is not strictly a concrete tie. Mr. Atwood states:* 

The fact that concrete is used as a filler and to keep the two portions 
of the steel tie in alignment and to gauge does not constitute this a con- 
crete tie. A tie is for the purpose of supporting the load that is trans- 
ferred to it through the rails. The concrete fiher in this tie is not called 
upon to carry this load; the load is carried entirely by the steel portions 





Fig. 47.— Kimbal Tie. 



of the tie, which are made of ample dimensions for that purpose. The 
concrete in the tie is not subjected to stresses which concrete ties are 
called upon to bear. That is the reason that the concrete in the ties in 
use on the P. <fe L. E. R.R. is still as good as it was five years ago, when 
first put into service. 

28. Wood Ties, Production of.f — Ties were formerly nearly 
always split and were usually made out of heart wood, using 
the best, and only straight live trees. 

* Private communication, Dec. 15, 1914. 

t From Reports of the Forestry Service and Bureau of the Census. 



78 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



There is probably no other branch of the lumber industry in 
which so many small trees are annually destroyed and the possible 
regrowth of forests retarded to such an extent as in the manu- 
facture of ties. The practice of sawing ties from logs is going 





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— 1 


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1 1 


J 


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1 1 






'^ff^J~"A"'\~\ I 
1 1 


1 1 




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^od "5" 


f^oc/'/i--,l\ ^-"-^ 


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Plan. 



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j>- " ■ ^ _i I • '<_2. ' ^' . 
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Section. 



Fig. 48.— Atwood Tie. 



to be more and more prevalent as the old feeling that a sawed 
tie is not worth having is overcome. This feehng is rapidly 
disappearing, and will certainly vanish entirely when it is realized 
that with a treated tie it makes no difference whether it be sawed 
or hewn. 



TIES 



79 



Pole ties Fig. 49 are cut from trees as large as 17 inches in 
diameter. Most of them are hewn, and in the hewing much of 
the outer portion of the tree is wasted. 

In 1906, oak, the chief wood used for ties, furnished more 
than 44 per cent, nearly one-half of the whole number, while the 
Southern pines, which ranked second, contributed about one-sixth. 
Douglas fir and cedar, the next two, with approximately equal 
quantities, supplied less than one-fifteenth apiece. Chestnut, 
cypress, Western pine, tamarack, hemlock and redwood are all 
of importance, but no one of them furnished more than a small 
proportion. 



N 



^^ 




Fig. 49.— Pole Tie. 



Of the total purchases of cross-ties during 1910, 139,596,000, 
or 94.2 per cent, were made by steam railroads, while electric 
railroads purchased 8,635,000, or 5.8 per cent. Largely as a 
logical result of the greater demand for cross-ties during 1910, 
the average cost per tie at point of purchase advanced to 51 
cents, the same figure reached in 1907, as compared with 49 cents 
i n 1909, and 50 cents in 1908. 

Table V shows the total number of cross-ties purchased each 
year from 1£07 to 1911, distributed according to kinds of wood 
arranged in the order of numbers purchased in 1911. Ten kinds 
of wood supply 95 per cent of all ties purchased. These are 
the oaks, the hard Southern pines, Douglas fir, cedar, chestnut, 
cypress, tamarack, hemlock. Western pine, and redwood. A 



80 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



comparison of the figures for the past five years shows that no 
great changes which cannot be accounted for by temporary con- 
cfitions have taken place in the number of ties made from the 
leading kinds of wood. There is no distinct trend toward the use 
of any one kind of wood. The more durable woods are preferreci. 
although the growing practice of treating ties with chemical pre- 
servatives is reflected in the figures for gum, maple, and beech, 
w^hich were reported in very small numbers a few years ago. 
The various kinds of oak are drawn upon as a class far more 
than any other kind of wood, 44 per cent of all ties purchased 
in 1911 being oak. Oak ranks high in durability and hardness^ 
and further is very widely available. Next to oak, Southern- 
pine ties are purchased in the largest numbers, the oaks and 
Southern pines together furnishing 83,773,000 ties out of the 
total of 135,053,000. 

TABLE V 

Cross Ties Purchased, by Kinds of Wood: 1907 to 1911 
(Bureau of the Census) 



Kind of Wood. 


1011 


1910 


1909 1 1908 


1907 


All kinds 


135,053,000 


148,231,000 


123,751,000 


112,466,000 


153,703,000 


Oak 


59,508,000 

24,265,000 

11,253,000 

8,015,000 

7.542,000 

5,857,000 
4,138,000 
3,680,000 
2,696,000 
1,820.000 

1,293,000 
1.189,000 
1.109,000 
2,682,000 


68,382,000 

26,264,000 

11,629,000 

7,305,000 

7,760,000 

5,396,000 
5,163,000 
3,468,000 
4,612,000 
2,165,000 

1,621,000 
773,000 
798,000 

2,895,000 


57,132,000 

21,385,000 

9,067,000 

6,777,000 

6,629,000 

4,589,000 
3,311,000 
2,642,000 
6,797,000 
2,088,000 

378,000 

158,000 

195,000 

2,603,000 


48,110,000 

21,530,000 

7,988,000 

8,172,000 

8,074,000 

3,457,000 
4,025,000 
3,120,000 
3,093,000 
871,000 

262,000 

151,000 

192,000 

3,421,000 


61,757,000 


Southern pine 

Douglas fir 

Cedar 

Chestnut 

Cypress 

Tamarack 

Hemlock 

Western pine 

Redwood 

Gum 


34,215,000 

14,525,000 

8,954,000 

7,851,000 

6,780,000 
4,562,000 
2,367,000 
5.019,000 
2,032,000 

15,000 


Maple . . 




Beech 


52,000 


All other 


5,574,000 



29. Wood Ties. Specifications. — The following clauses taken 
from the New York Central Lines specifications illustrate the 
requirements for manufacture, size and kinds of woods accepted. 



TIES 81 

Specifications for Cross Ties 

All ties shall be made from sound live timber, of the kind or kinds 
specified and shall be straight and free from soft or decayed knots, wind 
shakes, worm holes, checks or splits and other imperfections, which im- 
pair the usefulness of the tie. 

Ties may be manufactured out of the full size log by sawing or hew- 
ing parallel slabs from it to give the required thickness making pole ties; 
or by sawing or splitting sticks of the requisite size out of larger logs. 
If they are split out the top and bottom faces must be dressed parallel and 
smooth afterwards in the same manner as pole ties. 

All ties must be made of approximately straight grain timber; all 
ties except cedar must be entirely clear of bark before delivery; all cutting, 
sawing, hewing, splitting and barking must be done thoroughl}^ and in a 
workmanlike manner. 

The different siz'es are divided into classes from A to F, as follows : 
Class A Ties, 7''X9''X8J' No. 1. Class B Ties, 7''X9''X8i' No. 2. 
Class C Ties, T'^XS'^XS^ No. 1. Class D Ties, 7''X8''X8f No. 2. 
Class E Ties, 6''X8''X8' No. 1. Class F Ties, 6''X8''X8' No. 2. 

Class C and D ties may be considered as standard sizes and 
the specifications for these are given below. 

Class C Ties, 7''X8''X8J\ — All ties of this class whether sawed, split 
or pole ties, shall not be less than 8'^ wide through the body for the entire 
length of the tie, by not less than 6f '^ nor more than 7J'' in thickness 
between parallel faces, which faces must be at least 7'' wide under the 
rail and for one foot each way from the rail bearing. 

Class D Ties, 7'' X 8" X 8^'.— All ties of this class shall be similar to 
Class '' C ^' ties in every respect, except that the parallel faces must be 
at least 6'' wide under the rail and for one foot each way from the rail 
bearing. 

The following timbers are mentioned in the Specifications and 
classed under a white oak group, and four groups of timbers ac- 
cepted for creosoting. 

The following kinds of timber will be classed with White Oak: 
Post Oak Swamp White Oak 

Burr Oak Cow Oak or Basket Oak 

Chestnut Oak or Rock Oak Overcup Oak 

Chestnut Oak or Chinquapin Black Walnut 

Yellow or Black Locust 



82 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

The following kinds of timber will be accepted for creosoting: 

GROUP XO. 1 
Red Oak 

Pin Oak or Swamp Spanish Oak Scarlet Oak 
Black Oak or Yellow Oak Shingle Oak or Laurel Oak 

Spanish Oak Willow Oak 

Hone}^ Locust 

GROUP XO. 2 
Beech Sweet, Red or Black Birch 

GROUP XO. 3 

Sugar Maple or Rock Maple Mockernut Hickor}^ 

White Ash Pignut Hickory 

Bitternut or Swamp Hickory Hackberry or Sugarberry 

Shellbark Hickor\^ Pecan Hickory 

GROUP XO. 4 

Yellow Birch or Gra}' Birch Cork Elm, Rock Elm or Hickory 

Slippery Elm or Red Elm Elm 

From time to time timbers which have proven undesirable for 
the .purpose are eliminated from the different groups, as recently 
black or wild cherry, red mulberr}^ and sassafras have been taken 
out of the white oak group, w^ater oak from Group No. 1, and 
soft maple from group No. 4. Beech, ash, and hickory are not 
taken during the summer and their manufacture and shipment 
are confined to the period betw^een October 1st and April 1st. 

The specifications for bridge ties of the American Railway 
Engineering Association are as follows:* 

Specifications for Southern Yellow Pine Bridge Ties 

Ties shall show one ^ide all heart; the other side and two edges shall 
show not less than seventy-five (75) per cent heart, measured across 
the surface anywhere in the length of the piece; shall be free from large 
knots or other defects that will materially injure its strength; and 
where surfaced the remaining rough face shall show all heart. 

* Manual, 1911, pp. 142, 144, 150. 



TIES 83 

Specifications for Douglas Fir and Western Hemlock Bridge Ties 

Ties shall show one side and one edge all heart, the other side and 
edge shall show not less than eighty-five (85) per cent heart, measured 
across the surface anywhere in the length of the piece. 

Specifications for Workmanship for Bridge Ties 

Ties shall be framed to a uniform thickness over bearings, and shall 
be placed with the rough side upward. They shall be spaced regularly, 
cut to an even length and line, as called for on the plans. 

Switch ties are generally 7 in. by 9 in.; under railroad 
crossing frogs the ties may be increased in size, and sometimes 
8 in. by 10 in. timbers are used. 

In arranging the ties for a crossing they should be at right 
angles to a line - midway between the center lines of the two 
tracks, unless the traffic on the tracks is very unequal, in which 
case they may be placed at right angles to the center line of 
the track having the heaviest traffic. 

Specifications for switch ties are largely a matter of local 
arrangement. Those given below are a good example, and in 
many cases any variation from these will be mainly a matter 
of classification. 

Specifications for Switch-Ties 

Kinds of Wood 

White Oaks, Red Oaks, Black Locust, Black Walnut, Wild Cherries, 
Beech, Birches, Maples, and Longleaved Pines are the approved woods 
for switch-ties. Other species of wood will not be accepted unless speci- 
ally ordered. 

Quality and Manufacture 

All ties must be free from bark and from large, loose, or decayed knots, 
splits, shakes, rot, or any other defect that may impair the strength or 
durability of them for switch-tie use; be straight; be well manufactured; 
be sawed on four sides; be sawed off square at the ends; be out of wind; 
and have opposite sides parallel. 

Longleaved Pine ties must be sawed with the heart in center or nearly 
so, and must not have more than two (2) inches of sap wood at the rail- 
bearing points on each face. 



84 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



Classes and Grades of Ties 

Class A. For Use without Preservative Treatment. 

White oaks Locally known as white oak, chestnut or rock 

oak, post oak, burr or mossycup oak, swamp 

white oak. 
Black locust. . . .Locally known as black locust or yellow locust. 
Black walnut. . . . Locally known as black walnut. 
Wild cherries .... Locally known as bird or wild red cherry, black 

cherry. 
Longleaved pines. Locally known as longleaf, longstraw, hard, 

heart, Georgia, or Florida pine slash or 

Cuban pine. 



Species 

of 
Wood 



Class B. For Use Only after Preservative Treatment. 

Red oaks. . . . Locally known as red oak, black oak, Spanish 
oak, scarlet oak, pin oak, shingle or laurel 
oak. 

Species Beech Locally known as white beech. Red beech 

of I will not be accepted. 

Wood Birches Locally known as river or red birch, yellow or 

gra}^ birch, sweet, black, or cherry birch. 

Maples Locally known as sugar or hard maple, silver, 

soft, or white maple, red, soft, or swamp maple. 

Sets of switch-ties may be furnished in any combination of Class A 
hardwoods. Longleaf pine must always be furnished by itself. In Class 
B woods a set may be composed of only one kind for the red oaks, but 
in cases of beech, birch and maple these woods may be combined to make 
a set. 

Fig. 50 shows the typical plan of a No. 11 turnout recom- 
mended by the American Railway Engineering Association. 

Fig. 51 shows the method of piling ties standard on the 
Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railway. The piles of creo- 
soted ties should be kept at least 10 ft. apart and all grass, weeds 
and other inflammable material should be kept at least 4 ft. 
from piles. During the summer months a layer of dirt should 
be kept on each pile to prevent rapid drying out, and the possi- 
bility of fire starting in the ties. 



TIES 



85 



30. Wood Ties. Available 
Woods. — While oak is generally 
regarded as the best tie wood, this 
timber has been mostly all cut off 
from the regions traversed by the 
important roads and it is necessary 
to turn to more or less inaccessible 
territory to obtain oak ties at the 
present time. There are still large 
forests of oak, as those in the Ozark 
Mountains and along the Tennessee 
and Cumberland Rivers, but the 
distance the ties have to be trans- 
ported adds considerably to their 
cost and other woods have been 
employed to take its place. 

Probably the most important of 
these, in the case of the Eastern 
and Southern roads, are the South- 
ern pines. The long-leaf pine is a 
durable and strong wood, but the 
short-leaf pine is softer and more 
liable to decay. There is appar- 
ently no botanical distinction be- 
tween the long-leaf and short-leaf, 
but the difference in the trees is 
due to the character of their growth. 
The long-leaf is found on the up- 
lands where the growth is slow, and 
the short-leaf in the lowlands where 
the trees have a more rapid growth. 
While there is a large amount of 
Southern pine, there does not seem 
to be much effort made to conserve 
it for a permanent supply. 

A considerable amount of North- 
ern white cedar is to be found, 



b^ 



""i^ 



'M^ 






k>^ 



■^^ 



-P 




1^ 



86 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



but while this timber resists decay it is a very soft wood. 
Chestnut has been used for tie material, although somewhat 
brittle and hable to spht. It is doubtful, however, if it is avail- 
able in very large quantities, and recently the stands of this 
timber have been subject to attacks from worms. 

Douglas fir, western yellow pine and red wood are plentiful 
in the West; but the demand for these woods for other purposes 
and their distance from most of the roads prevent their general 
use. 

Gum is not a very desirable wood. Ties made from this 
timber should be looked upon with suspicion, as they are very 



h'/e OS many Ties in each Pile 
OS /s Convenleni' 



ti of less 
f-honJ5'-0' 




File 7Z Ties in 
in each pHe 



^p 








^'^^^0i^i)^^mi§i^: 




Fig. 51. — Piling Ties. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.) 



hard to get in good condition. These ties frequently show 
destructive growths in the interior of the tie where the outsicje 
presents the appearance of perfectly sound timber. 

While the red gum has been used quite extensively for ties 
by some of the roads in the Southwest in the untreated state, 
it must be borne in mind that such ties are composed entirely 
of heart wood, whereas the general run of gum ties received 
in the North have considerable sap and are subject to deteriora- 
tion in transit. If red gum ties could be gotten to the plant 
in sap-green condition, much of the objection raised against 
this timber would be overcome. Several of the roads in the 
Mississippi Valley that at one time refused ties made from this 



TIES 87 

wood, now receive them by specifying that they must be dehvered 
not later than thirty days after cutting. 

There are large suplies of red gum in Arkansas, and in the 
opinion of some engineers this wood should receive more con- 
sideration as a tie timber by the Northern roads than is at 
present given to it. The prejudice against this wood has with 
little doubt grown out of the lack of care given to the cutting 
and shipping of the ties rather than to the quality of the wood 
itself. 

Hickory and other woods of high economic value should at 
first sight apparently be excluded from a conservative stand- 
point. However, owing to the small number of ties made from 
these timbers, and the fact that they generally will be furnished 
only where there .exist a few isolated trees in a stand of other 
timber, they can safely be accepted without detriment to other 
interests outside of the tie industry, and at the same time 
resulting in some advantage to the railroads. Sycamore is not 
desirable for ties on account of the brittleness of this wood in 
service. It is also liable to deterioration during seasoning. 

Considerable difficulty has been experienced with the Northern 
beech on account of the tendency of this wood to split during the 
process of seasoning. It should be remembered that the North- 
ern beech is quite different from that found in the South. Beech 
ties from Michigan are what is known as red beech and while 
the sapwood takes treatment readily it is very difficult to treat 
the heart. Southern or white beech ties are much less refractory 
and do not require as long a time or as high a pressure to get 
corresponding impregnation. In the Southern beech checking 
is generally almost entirely absent and many piles of these ties 
compare favorably in this respect with the piles of oak and other 
non-checking species. 

Beech ties are cut from a single species and the difference 
in the wood of the Northern and Southern variety appears to 
be due to the more rapid growth of the latter. The use of the 
terms red and white beech refers to the red heartwood and the 
white sapwood of the same tree. In the beech ties from Michigan 
most of the sapwood is cut off and used for lumber, but the 



88 RAILWAY MAINTEXAXCE 

beech ties from the South are more frequently pole ties with a 
large proportion of sapwood. 

The term red gum likewise refers to the heart wood of the 
red gum or sweet gum {Liquidambar) . 

There are large supplies of Northern beech accessible, and, as 
apart from the question of checking, the timber affords an excel- 
lent tie; tests have been made to determine the best method of 
correcting this fault. The procedure has been to observe the effect 
of cutting the trees during the winter months when the sap is 
down, seasoning under sheds, which prevents rapid changes in 
temperature, and investigations of different forms of S irons and 
other methods of reducing the checking by mechanical means. 
These methods have proved quite successful in preventing the 
checking during seasoning. 

It should be observed that the sawed beech tie is not as liable 
to split during seasoning as the hewed or pole tie, although some 
engineers prefer the pole tie on account of the greater amount of 
sapwood it contains, which can be treated, while the heart is ver^' 
difficult to treat. 

Winter-cut beech has been found best largely because of the 
rapid decay which takes place before reaching the treating plant 
when cut during the summer months. 

Hard maple is used extensively for ties and with good results, 
but the soft maples offer comparatively little resistance to cutting 
under the tie plate. There is, however, a considerable supply of 
this timber available, and while its use in localities where it will 
be exposed to heavy service is not to be recommended, it affords 
a satisfactory' tie under certain conditions. Care should be 
exercised, however, to guard against decay of the wood during 
seasoning. 

Nearlv all of the native woods except white oak were formerly 
accepted for treatment, but the lines are now being much more 
strictly drawn on account of the difficulty which has been found 
in keeping many of these woods in good condition while being 
seasoned. 

31. Conservation of the Timber Supply. — The question of a 
future timber supply for wood ties is a very important one. The 



TIES 89 

railroads have met the problem in two ways : First, by a reduction 
of the amount consumed, which has been accomplished by the 
substitution in a limited way of other materials for wood, as the 
steel tie, but mainly by the extensive use of preservatives which 
by prolonging the life of the woods already in use and making 
available large quantities of timber unsuited for ties in its natural 
state has materially improved the situation, and second, by the 
adoption of forestry methods, having for their purpose the proper 
care and management of the forests still remaining and the 
cultivation of new tree plantations. 

Tree planting by the railways has not been very successful 
and should only be undertaken on cut-over lands to encourage 
the growth of the natural forest trees. The ill success attending 
most of the experiments of this kind has been due largely to 
the fact that the plantations were composed of trees that were 
not suited to the location or conditions of the ground selected for 
their cultivation. 

The question of growing tie timber is an individual problem 
with every road, but if such a policy is decided upon the only 
successful way to carry it out is to obtain large areas of mature 
timber and engage in forestry operations to manage the forest 
and cultivate the native trees on the cut-over areas. 

There are large areas of prolific timber land in the South which 
can still be obtained at reasonable prices, and several roads hold 
timber lands, which they have placed under management with 
a view to providing a source of tie supply. 

32. Tie Preservation. General. — The question of tie preserva- 
tion is becoming more and more important as the demand for 
tie material increases and the traffic requirements become more 
exacting. So long as plenty of white oak ties could be secured, 
the necessity for tie preservation was not felt; but with the con- 
stantly increasing use of pine and other less decay-resisting woods, 
it has become a vital economic question. The railroad companies 
have met the problem by estabhshing treating plants in various 
parts of the United States and by laying experimental tracks with 
treated ties to determine the efficiency of the several preservatives 
under varying conditions. 



90 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

The j&rst attempt in this countiy to prevent decay by treating 
wood was in 1838 on the Northern Central Raih'oad. About a 
mile of track was laid with treated ties, but owing to the low 
first cost of the ties, which were chestnut and oak, and were de- 
livered to the railroad at fourteen or sixteen cents apiece, this did 
not develop into a permanent industr3^ 

In 1880, for the first time the United States census undertook 
to ascertain what remained of our timber resources; it was 
found that they had been very rapidly depleted. Realizing the 
importance of the question the American Society of Civil En- 
gineers appointed a committee to report on the best methods of 
preserving wood, in order to lengthen its life. This committee 
was appointed in 1880, and after five years of w^ork presented its 
report in 1885. This was followed by the movement which 
has culminated in the present large wood preservation industry 
of the country. 

Fig. 52 shows the rapid increase in treated ties during recent 
years. 

In the year 1910, 97,500,000 cu.ft. of timber was treated. 
Most of this material consisted of cross-ties. 63,000,000 cu.ft., 
which constituted about 65 per cent of the total, were treated 
with the creosote treatment and the remainder with zinc chloride 
and zinc creosote treatment in the order named. 

In 1912 over twice as many ties were treated with creosote 
as with zinc chloride. 

The cost of creosote treatment, injected 10 lbs. of creosote 
per cu.ft. averages about 80.40 per tie; of zinc chloride SO. 17 
and of the Card process with a combination of zinc chloride and 
creosote SO. 25.* 

The creosote treatment, in addition to its toxic properties, 
has a more or less waterproofing effect, and is itself practically 
insoluble in water, while zinc chloride, on the other hand, is readily 
soluble. This results in a leaching out of the latter preservative 
in moist climates and consequent early decay of the tie. 

The actual preservative qualities of the treatments are, as 
far as is known, about the same. Tests made at the Forest 
* Forest Service Bulletin, No. 118, by Howard F. Weiss. 



TIES 



91 



Products Laboratory showed that ordinary coal-tar creosote 
had about the same toxicity as zinc chloride. 

Little definite knowledge is available as to the relative life of 
ties treated with these preservatives, but it is generally felt that 
the creosote tie will resist decay for a longer period, and at the 
present time there is a distinct tendency toward the adoption of 
this process especially as appKed to the woods strong enough to 
prevent mechanical destruction. It can be seen, however, that 
in the case of a tie having a short mechanical life little would 



iU,UUU,VJW 






















1 


1 


40,000,000 




















\ J 


J 




. 
















A t 


/V 




1 


30,000,000 
















f 


V 




/ 
















i 


/ 




/ 












Per 


Cen-f 


of 


oiij 


y 






A 






20,000.000 
















A 


y 








10.000,000 
















/ 






















if\ 


/ 






















Nun 


Tber- 


y 













20 



1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 

Year. 



Fig. 52. — Treated Ties in the United States. (Am . Ry . Eng. Assn. Howson.) 



be gained by using an expensive treatment to prevent its resist- 
ance to decay beyond its anticipated life from other causes. 

33. Tie Preservation. Creosote Process. — The two important 
creosoting processes are the Lowry and the Rueping. The quota- 
tion given below is taken from the Lowry patent of September 
18, 1906: 

Herein described process of preserving wood consists of saturating 
the wood with creosote oil under pressure while entirely submerged, 
then removing all free oil and immediately subjecting the wood to the 
action of a vacuum to withdraw most of the oil from the pores and 
cells therein. 



92 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

The following procedure is used at the Toledo plant of the 
New York Central Lines, which is typical of other plants using 
this process: The ties are thoroughly seasoned, then placed in a 
cyUnder and the cylinder closed. Oil is then introduced into the 
cylinder to completely fill it. The oil is at a temperature of 
180° F., which temperature is kept constant by means of steam 
coils. Pressure is then put on the contents of the cylinder which 
varies according to the timber being treated. It is usually 
between 150 and 175 lbs. per square inch. This pressure is 
maintained until the best practical impregnation of the timber 
has been procured. The practice for the timbers given in the 
New York Central Lines specifications (Article 29) would be to 
continue this pressure for about two and a half hours. 

The cyhnder is then drained until the surplus oil is taken out, 
then a quick vacuum is drawn (varying from 24 to 28 ins.) from 
one-half to one hour duration. The timber is then withdrawn 
from the cyhnder. 

The Rueping process consists of forcing compressed air into 
the pores or cells of the wood and at a higher pressure creosote 
oil, without relieving the air pressure. Upon reUeving the com- 
bined pressure and applying a vacuum the air expands and 
forces out surplus oil, leaving the wood fibers impregnated. It 
is thus seen that the essential difference between the two proc- 
esses consists in applying preliminary air pressure in the 
Rueping process. 

Fig. 53 shows the outline of a creosoting plant with one impreg- 
nating cylinder and accessories. The retort is a horizontal 
cyhnder 6 ft. to 9 ft. in diameter, and from 50 ft. to 150 ft. long, 
built of steel plate made extra heavy to resist corrosion and fitted 
with cast-steel doors at one or both ends. Tracks are secured 
to the inside of the cylinder for the tie cars shown in Fig. 54 to 
run on. Many plants are using electric locomotives to switch 
the trains to the retorts and around the tie yard. 

The charging tanks are usually elevated above the impreg- 
nating cylinder. At some of the recent plants the exhaust 
pipe is not used and heating coils are put in the tank. The 
oil from the charging tank is drawn into the cylinder by grav- 



TIES 



93 




94 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



ity. An emptying tank is often furnished to facilitate discharg- 
ing the cyhnders rapidly, and the oil from the emptying tank 
is then pumped back into the charging tanks. 

Referring again to the tie specifications of the New York 
Central Lines (Article 29), the diagrams A, B, C, and D, Fig. 55, 
illustrate tests showing the rate of absorption of typical timbers 
selected from the different groups. It will be noted from an 




Fig. 54. — Railroad Tie Car. (Power & Mining Mach. Co.) 



examination of these figures that each group possesses quite 
distinctive features, although in some cases groups two and 
three take nearly similar treatment. 

In the process of seasoning, the timbers group themselves 
much more rapidly than by absorption. Under average condi- 
tions the following time should be allowed for seasoning : 

Group 1 10 to 14 months 

Groups 2 and 3 4 to 6 months 

Group 4 4 to 5 months 



TIES 



95 



4Z00 

3600 

3000 

c2400 
o 

o 1800 
o 

IZOO 
600 



































^^ 


--=^ 






















/ 


^ 












> 


4lr25^ 


< 






/ 






















/ 
























/ 












Note 


■.One 


Galhh ofO 
6.71^5. at 


7 wei^ 
100°' 


f 



























ZOO 



160 
IZO D 

CO 

80 t 



40 



7.00 7.20 7.40 8.00 8.20 8.40 9.00 9.20 940 205 225 245 3.05 

Time. 

Fig. A. 

Ch No.588,1030 Red Oak Ties, 6x8x8'. 

Net 3.91 Oals.perTie. 
Gro55 4.l4 >' »> >» 
Group No. I Toledo. 



4200 

3600 

3000 

C 2400 
o 

^ 1800 
O 
1200 

600 
0. 















> 


^" 


- 




/ 






/^ 








/ 


/ 








/ 










f 










I 











715 7.35 7.55 8.15 8.35 Time 



Fig.B. 

Ch.No.592,979,BeechTie5, 

ffxBxS' 

Net 2.50 Gals, per Tie. 
Gro55 3.7l ♦' " »' 
Group No.Z Toledo. 




1135 11.55 12.15 Time. 



Fig. C. 
Ch.No.594,953,A5h,Hick 
&H.Maple6x8x8' 

Net Z.50 Gals, per Tie. 

Gross 3.56 » »> >* . 

Group No.3 Toledo. 



4200 

3600 

3000 
iP 

C2400 
o 

O 1800 
o 
1200 

600 


3.10 330 3.50 4.10 Time. 

Flg.D. 

Ch.No.633,9^,5.MapleTies, 

6x8"x8' 

Net 2.58 Gals, per Tie. 

Gross 4.44 »» » » . 

Group No. 4 Toledo. 





/ 


f 






/ 








f 














/ 


/ 






// 


/ 















260 
220 

180 

a> 

140 ^ 

«n 

100 S 
t 
60 

20 




Absorption Curve 
'Pressure »» 



Fig. 55. — Absorption of Different Tie Timbers. 



96 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

As grouping by seasoning necessitates treating by the same 
groups, unless rehandling is resorted to at the plant, it does not 
seem desirable to use a grouping entirely on this basis, although 
it should be borne in mind in determining the final arrangement 
of the timbers. 

34. Tie Preservation. Zinc Chloride Process. — This process, 
frequently called ^' Burnettizing," was invented in 1838 by Sir 
William Burnett of the English Navy. The invention consisted 
in submitting the wood to the action of chloride of zinc. At first 
the impregnation was accomplished by immersion in open tanks, 
but later, in 1847, the timbers were placed in an air-tight tank 
which was capable of withstanding a pressure of 140 lbs. per 
square inch. As at present practiced the procedure is similar 
to that followed in the Lowry process, except that a solution of 
zinc chloride takes the place of the creosote. 

The process was used quite early in Germany, as shown by the 
following quotation from the Stuttgart Technical Convention of 
1887.* 

As the experience of those railroads that have from twenty-five to 
twenty-six years impregnated their sleepers with chloride of zinc, under 
pressure, after steaming and abstracting the saps, has been very satis- 
factory, and as this system costs one-third, or less, compared with impreg- 
nation with creosote oil or corrosive sublimate, many railroads have 
adopted the chloride of zinc process. 

The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Ry., in 1885, treated ties 
with chloride of zinc at Las Vegas, N. M. In treating these ties 
glue and tannin were added to the chloride of zinc solution with 
the idea of preventing the leaching out of the soluble chloride 
salts. 

35. Strength of. — The United States Forest Service under the 
direction of Dr. Hatt carried out an elaborate series of tests upon 
the strength of treated and untreated pine ties. 

The results of these tests form a body of evidence from which 
the following general conclusions may be drawn : 

* Some Facts about Treated Railroad Ties, W. F. Goltra, 1912, Cleve- 
land, p. 59. 



TIES 97 

1. A high degree of steaming is injurious to wood in strength 
and spike-holding power. The degree of steaming at which pro- 
nounced harm results will depend upon the quality of the wood 
and its degree of seasoning^ and upon the pressure (temperature) 
of steam and the duration of its application. For loblolly pine 
the limit of safety is 30 lbs. for 4 hours, or 20 lbs. for 6 hours. 

2. The presence of zinc chloride will not weaken wood under 
static loading, although the indications are that the wood becomes 
brittle under impact when treated with solutions above 3.5 
per cent concentration. 

3. A light treatment with creosote will not weaken wood of 
itself. Since, apparently, it is present only in the openings of 
the cells, and does not get into the cell walls, its action can only 
be to retard the seasoning of the wood. 

The Committee on Wood Preservation of the American 
Railway Engineering Association in its report at the 1910 Con- 
vention of the Association presented the following conclusions, 
based on the best data available at the time on the strength of 
treated timber: 

(a) High steaming will diminish the strength rapidly. 

(b) Treating with strong solution of zinc chloride will render 
the timber brittle, perhaps because of free acid in the solution. 

(c) Creosote is inert. 

(d) Seasoned timber treated with light doses of creosote is 
as strong as the original timber. 

The great variation in strength which is noticeable in timber 
of the same species makes it necessary to accept with caution 
the result of a limited number of tests representing the average 
of the species. One of the most troublesome factors influencing 
the strength of wood is the amount of moisture in it. 

The Forest Service has found that a comparison of the results 
of tests on seasoned material with those from tests on green 
material shows that, without exception, the strength of small 
2 by 2 in. specimens is increased by lowering the moisture con- 
tent, but that increase in strength of other sizes is much more 
erratic. Some specimens, in fact, show an apparent loss in 
strength due to seasoning. In the light of these facts it is not 



98 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

safe to base working stresses on results secured from any but 
green material. 

The woods offering the greatest resistance to wear at the 
rail bearing are the oaks, beech, locust, hard maple and hickory. 
Next to these may Le classed long-leaf pine, elm, hemlock and 
Douglas fir. Loblolly pine, short-leaf pine, soft maple, catalpa, 
Norway pine and cedar have little strength to resist crushing 
and their use should be avoided for main-line tracks under heavy 
traffic. 

To determine the bending stress caused by the wheel load 
it is necessary to look upon the tie as a continuous beam loaded 
at the rail bearings and resting on yielding supports. In examin- 
ing this stress the action of the ballast under the tie presents 
the greatest difficulty. 

M. Cotiard found that the vertical displacements of cross- 
ties hardly reach three millimeters (I in.) and that they are not 
proportional to the weights supported. He has concluded from 
his experiments that 

the cross-ties fixed to the rail remain, at certain points, suspended 
above the ballast, and that right at the rail there is formed under even 
the best tamped cross-ties some depressions of ballast on the edges of 
which the cross-tie is supported ; that under the passage of a wheel even 
lightly loaded the cross-ties come in contact with the ballast and deflect 
to the depth of the depressions. 

Very careful experiments have been made by M. Cuenot 
on the relative action of the tie and the ballast, from which he 
drew the following conclusions:* 

That long tics, 8 feet 6 inches to 7 feet 6 inches, take, under the load, 
the form of a basin with the bottom slightly raised in the center. 

That short ties, 7 feet to 6 feet 6 inches, are deformed according to a 
curve, convex or otherwise, and inclined toward the extremity. 

That symmetrical tamping raised the curve towards the center; 
a very feeble lack of symmetry reacts very clearly in this direction. 

* Deformations of Railroad Tracks, G. Cuenot, The Railroad Gazette, 
1907, New York. Translation by W. C. Gushing. 



TIES 99 

The permanent sinking of the ballast is variable according to the 
case, but the elastic sinking, the only one there is reason to consider, is, 
so to speak, constant, whatever be the length and type of the cross-tie 
adopted. The deformation is slowly produced and augments with time. 

The bending stress in the tie is of secondary importance 
to that produced by compression of the fibers at the rail bearing. 
A study of the elastic" curve the tie takes under load is chiefly 
of interest in determining the proper tamping of the ballast so 
as to reduce the permanent movement of the ballast bed under 
the tie and lengthen the period between successive tampings 
of the track. (See Fig. 113.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Forms of 

Railway Track and Track Work, E. E. Russell Tratman, 1909, 
New York, p. 5. 

Railroad Construction, W. L. Webb, 1913, New York, p. 253. 

Metal Ties 

Reports of Tie Committee. Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. 

Report on the Substitution of Metal for Wood in Railroad Ties, 
E. E. Russell Tratman, Bulletin No. 4, Forestry Div. U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture. 

Steel Ties on the Bessemer and Lake Erie, Railway Age Gazette, 
Oct. 18, 1912, p. 742. 

Concrete Ties 

Reports of Tie Committee, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. 

Outline of Service Tests on Concrete Ties, Coombs, The Concrete 
Review, June, 1908. 

Reinforced Concrete Railway Structures, J. D. W. Ball, 1914, New 
York, pp. 183-197. 

Wood Ties — Production of 

Cross-ties Purchased in 1911, Forest Products, No. 8, Bureau of the 
Census. 



100 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

Conservation of the Timber Supply 

Proceedings of The American Forest Congress, 1905, Washington. 

Preliminary Report of Sub-committee on Future Policy of Railroads 
with Reference to Tie Supply, Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. 
Assn., 1908, Vol. 9, p. 715. 

Report of the National Conservation Commission, 1909, Government 
Printing Office, Washington. 

Timber Supply in Relation to Wood Preservation, E. A. Sterling, 
Proceedings American Wood Preservers' Assn., 1911, pp. 140-144. 

Tie Preservation 

The Preservation of Structural Timber, H. F. Weiss, 1915, New York. 

Reports of Wood Preservation Committee, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. 

A Comparison of Zinc Chloride with Coal-Tar Creosote for Preserving 
Cross-ties, H. F. Weiss, Proceedings American Wood Preservers' Assn., 
1913. 

Future Tie Material in the United States, H. H. Gibson, ibid., 1914. 

Wood-preserving Industry May Suffer from War, Clyde H. Teesdale, 
Railway Age Gazette, October 23, 1914, p. 753 (contains comments on the 
value of treating processes which could be used in the event of the supply 
of creosote becoming curtailed). 

Report on Condition of Treated Timbers Laid in Texas, February, 
1902. Forest Service Bulletin No. 51. 

Wood Preservation in the United States, Forest Service Bulletin, No. 
78. 

Prolonging the Life of Cross-ties, Forest Service Bulletin, No. 118. 

Experiments in the Preservative Treatment of Red Oak and Hard 
Maple Cross-ties, Forest Service Bulletin, No. 126. 

The Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Hemlock and Tamarack 
Cross-ties, Forest Service Circular, No. 132. 

Experiments with Railway Cross-ties, Forest Service Circular, No. 
146. 

Consumption of Wood Preservatives and Quantity of Wood Treated 
in the United States in 1910, Forest Service Circular, No. 186. 

Strength of 

Tests of Structural Timbers, Forest Service, Bulletin No. 108. 
Summary of Mechanical Tests on Thirt3^-two Species of American 
Woods, Forest Service Circular, No. 15. 



TIES 101 

Experiments on the Strength of Treated Timbers, Forest Service 
Circular, No. 46. 

The Strength of Wood as Influenced by Moisture, Forest Service 
Circular, No. 108. 

Strength Values for Structural Timbers, Forest Service Circular, 
No. 189. 

Mechanical Properties of Woods Grown in the I'nited States, Forest 
Service Circular, No. 213. 



CHAPTER VI 
RAILS 

36. Sections, Early.^ — The first Bessemer steel rails made in 
America were rolled at the North Chicago Rolling ]^Iill on the 
24th of IVIay, 1865, from hammered blooms made at the Wyan- 
dotte Rolling ]\Iill from ingots of steel made at experimental 
steel works at Wyandotte, ]Mich. The experimental steel works 
at AVyandotte were erected in 1864, and were the first works 
started in this country for conducting the pneumatic or Bessemer 
process. The rolls upon which the blooms were rolled at the 
North Chicago Rolling ]\Iill were those which had been in use 
for rolling iron rails, and, though the reduction was much too 
rapid for steel, the rails came out sound and well shaped. The 
first steel rails rolled in the United States upon order, in the 
wa}^ of regular business, were rolled by the Cambria Iron Com- 
pany at Johnstown, Pa., in August, 1867,* from ingots made 
at the works of the Pennsjdvania Steel Company, at Harris- 
burg, Pa. Rails were rolled by the Spuyten Duyvil Rolling 
]\Iill Company, at Spuyten Duyvil, N. Y., early in September 
of that year, from ingots made at the Bessemer Steel Works, 
at Troy, N. Y., then owned by Messrs. Winslow & Griswold, 
but these were on experimental orders, and not regular ones 
from an}^ railway compan\\t 

The early steel rails were rolled in mills which had been 
designed for iron rails. These were generally pear-headed in 

* See paper on the Development of the American Rail and Track by J. 
Elfreth Watkins, Trans. Am. Soc. of CivU Engrs., April 1890, Vol. XXII, 
p. 228. 

t Private communication from Mr. Robt. W. Hunt. 

102 



RAILS 103 

order to prevent the side of the head from breaking down, and 
were therefore not adapted to fishing. The connections at the 
joints were very unsatisfactory, the design preventing the fish 
plate, or joint, from supporting the head.* 

If the joint could bear against horizontal surfaces it would 
not be forced out laterally by the loads, but the rail could not be 
properly filled by rolling and the play would rapidly increase 
and could not be taken up. Mr. Chanute, when he was Chief 
Engineer of the Erie Railway in the early seventies, experimented 
to determine the correct angle of the under side of the head to 
hold the joint, and found that with an angle above 15 degrees 
the joint was loosened by stretching of the bolts. This relieved 
the pressure and friction of the joint against the nuts and allowed 
them to turn. He therefore adopted the angle of 15 degrees 
under the head, and to avoid unnecessary metal in the flange, 
he made its angle 12 degrees. 

By referring to Fig. 56 the pear shape of the old iron rails 
can be readily seen. These were followed by rails where the 
section was more adapted to fishing and having a better distri- 
bution of the metal to afford a stiff er rail. 

The adoption of an improved section was, however, very slow, 
and as late as 1881, 119 patterns of steel rails of 27 different 
weights per yard were regularly manufactured, and 180 older 
patterns were still in use, making a total of nearly 300 different 
patterns. This great variety of sections in use required the 
mills to keep a large number of different rolls in stock, and 
finally to standardize the design of the rail, the American Society 
of Civil Engineers presented a section in 1893. (Fig. 57.) The 
rails of this section met with favor and were adopted by many 
railroads, so that in a few years about two-thirds of the output 
of the rail mills conformed to this design. 

These sections proved very satisfactory for the light-weight 
rails then in use. The 80-lb. rail* was regarded as the heaviest 

*The fish plate joint was composed of two straps of iron bolted to the 
rail. In the English rails two keys of iron were driven between the chairs 
and the rail and were called '' fishes." The term evidently being derived 
from that used by sailors in " fishing " a joint. 



104 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



likely to be extensively used. This was standard on the New 
York Central, the Delaware and Hudson and the Michigan 
Central. Only one road had at that time heavier rails; this 
was the Philadelphia and Reading with a few 90-lb. rails. 

As the heavier sections in this series came into use less satis- 
factory results were obtained and considerable criticism was 
directed against the design. 



~7^"7r 




Head 4Z % 
Web 21 7o 
Flange '51% 




C. Line IZ"Rad. 
Bolt 8r Web 







Fig. ; 56.— Pear Headed Rail, 
Buffalo, Corning & N. Y. 
R. R., 1857, 



Fig. 57.— a. S. C. E. Rail Section, 
100 Lbs. per Yd. 



It is generally found in rolling heavier sections of any shape 
that modifications have to be made in the design from that used 
in the hghter sections. This is especially true of rails on account 
of their thin flanges, which at the last stage of the rolling are 
considerably cooler than the other parts of the rail. 

37. Sections, Present. — Realizing the importance of this ques- 
tion, the American Railway Association appointed in 1607 a 
special committee on Standard Rail and Wheel Sections. This 
committee, through a sub-committee on which the manufacturers 
were represented, devoted a large amount of time and attention 



RAILS 



105 



to the matter of sections and specifications for steel rails and 
presented a preliminary report to the Association, October 1, 
1907. 

Accompanying the report of the committee were two series 
of proposed standard rail sections: Series ^^ A/' designed to meet 
the requirements of those who advocate a rail with thin head 
and a high moment of inertia, and series '' B/^ to meet the require- 
ments of those who think there should be a narrow, deep head, 
with the moment of inertia a secondary matter. 




Head 
Web 



F/ange39J% 



Head 40.2 Vo 
Web 19.2% 
Flange 40. e% 




A.R.A. 



U..J2;'Racl. 
BolfSrWeb 



C\4 




^.fci ^_ 



Type B. 



>l 



i^t^:ij 



Fig. 58.— a. R. A. Type A Rail 
Section, 100 Lbs. per Yd. 



^6# 



Fig. 59.— a. R. A. Type B Rail 
Section, 100 Lbs. per Yd. 



The one known 



^^ A ^' has a shallower head and greater height than 
/' In this section the importance of the rail as a girder 



These sections are shown in Figs. 58 and 59 
as series 
series ^^ B 

is borne in mind. Those who oppose this section fear that the 
shallow head is an element of weakness and prefer, as shown in 
the series '^ B ^^ section, a rail with a heavier head as better 
adapted to roads having heavy wheel loads and dense traffic. 

The American Railway Association Committee, in its report 
of October 1, 1907, submitted a statement of cardinal principles 



106 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

which should govern the design of a series of rail sections, as 
follows : 

(a) There should be such a distribution of metal between the head 
and the base as to insure the best control of temperature in the manu- 
facture of the rail. 

(b) The percentage of metal in the base of the rail should preferably 
be equal to or slightly greater than that in the head, and the extremities 
of the flanges should be sufficient h^ thick to permit the entire section 
to l^e rolled at low temperatures. The internal stresses and the extent 
of cold straightening vnll be reduced b}^ this means to a minimum, and at 
the same time the texture of the section will be made approximately 
homogeneous. 

(c) The sections should be so proportioned as to possess as great an 
amount of stiffness and strength as may be consistent with securing the 
best conditions of manufacture and the best service. 

(d) The following limitations as to dimension details of the sections 
are considered advisable for the various weights per yard : 

I. The width of base to be J inch less than the height. 
II. The fishing angles to be not less than 13 degrees and not greater 
than 15 degrees. 

III. The thickness of the base to be greater than in the existing 

sections of corresponding weight. 

IV. The thickness of the web to be no less than in the existing 

A. S. C. E. sections of corresponding weight. 
V. A fixed percentage of distribution of metal in head, web, and 
base for the entire series of sections need not be adhered to, 
but each section in a series can be considered by itself. 
VI. The radii of the under corner of head and top and bottom cor- 
ners of base to be as small as practicable with the colder 
conditions of rolling. 
VII. The radii of the fillets connecting the web with head and base 
to be as great as possible, for reinforcing purposes, consistent 
with securing the necessary area for bearing surface under the 
head for the top of the splice bar. 
VIII. The sides of the head should be vertical, or nearly so. 
IX. The radii of the top corners of the head should not be less than 
f inch so long as the wheels continue under the present 
standard of the IVlaster Car Builders' Association. 

The principles (a), (5) and (c) above enumerated, appear to 



RAILS 107 

cover the proper design of T-rail sections. The (d) hmitations as 
to dimension details should be approached tentatively rather 
than regarded as a cardinal principle. 

The sections ^^ A '^ and ^^ B ^^ were proposed as recommended 
practice by the American Railway Association, and referred to 
the American Railway Engineering Association to study and 
accumulate data and make a report after the sections have been 
sufficiently tried in service to enable an opinion to be formed as 
to their respective merits. 

Since October, 1907, a large tonnage has been rolled of rails 
substantially in accordance with the new sections, both series 
^^ A ^^ and ^^ B.^' It has been demonstrated that these sections 
can be finished in the mill at a lower temperature than the 
A.S.C.E. sections,.* and therefore a finer grained and better 
wearing rail should be secured with the new section. However, 
great care must be exercised at the mills to see that rails are 
actually rolled at lower temperatures. 

The 90-lb. series ^^ A ^^ is now used on a majority of the 
Western prairie roads, and the ^^ B '^ section is used on the 
group of coal roads in Maryland and Virginia. On account 
of the heavier head found in the ^^ B ^^ section, it seems to be 
preferred by the crooked roads of the East, especially those in 
the mountains of Pennsylvania, Virginia and Mar^dand; while 
on the prairie roads, where little curvature is found, the series 
^^ A '^ rail with the lighter head finds more general use. 

Fig. 60 shows the type of rail recommended by the committee 
on Rail of the American Railway Engineering Association, in 
1915. The Committee offered no new designs for sections under 
100 lbs., and for the 90-lb. section recommended the A.R.A. 
/^ A '^ section for the single type standard. It will be observed 
that the design submitted has a high ratio of section modulus 
to area of section, and that the Committee has kept in mind the 
feature of the rail as a girder. 

On June 5, 1907, a joint committee of Mechanical and Civil 
Engineers of the Pennsylvania system was appointed to study 

* This refers to the temperature of the head; no part of the new sections 
is finished as cold as the thin bases of the A.S.C.E. rails. 



108 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



the rail question, and on September 20 of the same year reported 
sections for 85-lb. and 100-lb. rails. (Fig. 61.) This section, as 
in series '^ B ^^ of the American Railway Association, has a heavy 
head and low ratio of section modulus to area, the Pennsylvania 
e\^denth' considering that with the character of their line the 
head should be strengthened as much as possible. 

The New York Central is using a section designed b}^ Dr. 
P. H. Dudley, quite similar to the American Railway Associa- 




Head id. 2% 

Web 22.e7o\^Y^ 

dose 19. 2% 



C.L. 14" Rod. '^ 
Neutrol Axis~^ ^ 




Fig. 60. — R. E. Kail Section, 
100 Lbs. per Yd. 



Head 41 7o 
Web 19 % 
Flange 40% 



^43". J 




^ Bolt & Web ¥^ ^ 




liG. GL— P. S. Rail Section, 
100 Lbs. per Yd. 



lion Series ''A," but with a radius of 1 in. for the fillet between 
the base and the web. This section is shown in Fig. 62. 

38. Sections, Foreign. — In Europe a T-rail section is used. 
The Vignole rail, used extensively abroad, was invented in England 
in 1836 by Mr. Chas. Vignoles. In England, however, the idea 
seems to prevail that a T-rail track is undesirable and the bull 
head rail is generally used on the EngUsh railways. Fig. 635 
shows the 100-lb. section of the British Standard bull head rail. 

39. Weight.— The 90-lb. and 100-lb. sections are now gen- 
erally adopted as standard on American railroads. Sections of 



RAILS 



109 



heavier weight have not met with general favor, although there 
are a few exceptions, notably the 105-lb. rail standard on 
the New York Central, illustrated in Fig. 62, and the 135-lb. 
rail in use on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. One thousand 
tons of this latter rail were ordered in 1910 for use on sharp curves. 
Subsequent orders were placed in the years 1912, 1913 and 
1914, bringing the total tonnage up to 6600 tons. This rail 
has very high carbon and one of the reasons for the road try- 




Head 

Web 25.-5% 

Flange 3Z5^ 



Fig. 62. —Dudley Rail Section, 105 Lbs. per Yd. 



ing the heavy section was to enable a higher carbon content 
to be used than would be considered safe in the 90- or 100-lb. 
rail. 

The Pennsylvania have ordered a considerable tonnage 
of 125-lb. rail and are gradually putting it in the track for test. 

The heaviest rail contemplated in the A.S.C.E. and the 
A.R.A. sections was the 100-lb. The new section of the Ameri- 
can Railway Engineering Association starts at the 100-lb. rail 
and gives designs for sections as heavy as 140 lbs. It does not 



no 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



appear, however, to be the intention that these very heavy rails 
should be adopted for present use. 

The principal reason in going to heavier sections has been 
to reduce the stresses in the track structure. It should be 
observed, however, that good results are not always obtained 
as the weight increases, owing to the difficulties met with in the 
manufacture of the rail. 

In considering the proper design for a rail, the subject should 
be approached from two points of view: First, the stresses in 




A. Flat Bottom ''B. S." Section, No. 100 
100 Lbs. per Yd. 

Fig. 63. — British Standard Railway Rails. 



B. BuU Head ^'B. S." Section, 
Xo. 100, 100 Lbs. i;or Yd. 



the rail itself and its ability to transmit the load so as not to 
overstress the track structure; and second, the effect of the 
design upon the details of manufacture and the character of 
the material of which the rail is made. It will be seen that a 
knowledge of the stresses in the rail will be of little advantage 
unless it is also known w^hat stresses the material of the rail 
is capable of resisting. 



RAILS 111 

40. Stresses. — In recent years much thought has been given 
to the manufacture of rail-steel, and irrvestigators, it would seem, 
have turned their attention more to an examination of the 
various defects found in the process of manufacture than to the 
study of the duty of the rail. 

Quite early the question of the intensity of pressure existing 
between the wheel and the rail began to receive attention, but 
it was not until later that the bending stresses in the rail were 
investigated. Purely theoretical contributions to the latter sub- 
ject were made by Zimmermann in 1888. The first practical 
investigations of the bending stress in the rail were apparently 
those made by the United States Government in 1893 by meas- 
uring the strains in the rail under the static load of the locomotive 
wheels. These were followed by Dr. P. H. Dudley's stremmato- 
graph experiments for measuring the effect of dynamic loads. In 
the time elapsed since the publication of these investigations 
hardly anything has been done to further elucidate this problem. 

The principle of the wheel is a line contact on the running 
surface. In practice, on account of the compression which takes 
place at the bearing surface, this is never realized, but never- 
theless the bearing surface is always very small. The ordinary 
compression modulus, determined by tests on prisms having the 
same bearing surface as their greatest section, has no relation 
to the stress which exists at the area of contact between the 
wheel and the rail. The material in the latter case receives 
support from the surrounding metal, and is therefore not wholly 
free to move under the high stress to which it is subjected. It 
should be remembered that the application of stress alone has 
very little effect upon the steel unless it results in strain. This 
has been shown in experiments in cubical compression where a 
block of steel has been placed under very high hydraulic pressure 
without producing appreciable compression. 

The compression under the wheel is not entirely a case of 
cubical compression and can be understood from the following 
explanation given by Professor Johnson.* 

* Paper contributed by Professor Johnson to the Engineer's Club of 
^t. Louis^ December, 1892. 



112 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



When a plain cylindrical column is subjected to a uniform 
pressure or stress over its entire cross-section, as Fig. 64 A, it may 
be said to be in a condition of '' free flow/^ since it is free to 
spread in all directions throughout the length of the column. 
In Fig. 645 the material is compressed uniformly over a small 
area, as with a die. Here there is a flowing of the metal laterally, 
and then vertically, finding escape around the edges of the die. 
This is a condition of confined or restricted flow, and evidently the 
elastic limit here will be much higher than with the simple column. 

In Fig. 64C, the surface is compressed by a cylinder, the 
greatest distortion being at the middle of the area of contact. 





^^^^^ y/y//////////A 




Condition of 
Free Flow. 



Par1-ially 
Restricted Flow. 



y/////////////// 



Restricted 
Flow. 



A B C 

Fig. 64.— Compression Moduli. (After Johnson.) 



When this metal is forced to move, or flow, it can find escape 
only out around the limits of the compressed area. But at 
these limits the metal is a very little compressed, and, hence, 
must be moved from the center. The confined ring of metal 
inside the limits of external flow is now much wider, and, hence, 
the real resistance to flow much greater, so that this condition 
will be found to have a higher elastic limit stress than that shown 
in Fig. 64j5 and very much above the ordinary ^^ elastic limit 
in compression " which is found for the free-flow condition of 
Fig. 64A. 

Professor Johnson experimented* to determine the area of 

* Friction Rollers (Discussion of Paper No. 722), J. B. Johnson and A. 
Marsbon, Trans. Am. Soc. of Civil Engrs., September, 1894, Vol. XXXII, 
pp. 270-277. 



RAILS 



113 



contact between locomotive and car wheels and rails. Sec- 
tions of wheels were mounted in a 100,000-lb. Riehl6 testing 
machine and short sections of rail were placed in the machine 
so that the wheel treads rested upon them in a normal position. 
They were then loaded with 5000-lbs. increments from 5000 to 
60,000 lbs., the area of contact being measured after each load- 
ing. In Fig. 65 these areas are plotted with the area of con- 
tact as ordinates and the loads as abscissa. 

Fig. 66 presents some of the experiments made by the Ord- 
nance Department, U. S. Army, during the month of October, 



0.0 



0.2 



J 0.4 



0.6 



0.8 

































\ 


V 


























' 


'^ 


'^f-o^f 


kc 




























^-^ 




Ki: 


























^'^e. 


% 




^^, 


1// ^ 
























'^-<.> 


^ 






h 


-<7' 
























5n 




<^ 
























-"^ 


^^ 


^^ 

































10.000 i.?:voo 30,000 40,000 

Lc<.(d on Wheel in Fbunds. 



50,000 



60,000 



Fig. 65. — Relation between Areas of Contact and Load on Wheel. 

(After Johnson.) 



18]3, on the track of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Rail- 
road, at Hawthorne, 111. 

The experiments consisted of measuring the depression of 
the rails under the weights of different classes of locomotives, 
and the fiber stresses developed in the base of the rail. 

For the purpose of observing the depression of the rails, 
bench marks were established on a row of stakes driven along- 
side the rail, 31 ins. distant from it. A beam carrying a microm- 
eter and an astronomical level bubble was used in observing 
the depression of the rail, first measuring the height, using points 
on the outer flange, w^hen the rail was unloaded, and repeat- 
ing the observations when the engine was standing on the track. 



114 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



Fig. A shows the depression of one rail its entire length and 
the ends of contiguous rails, the locomotive occupying one 
position thereon as shown with reference to the rail and ties. 

Fig. B shows the curve of depression under another type 
of locomotive. This engine had no leading truck nor tender, 
but had a two-wheeled trailing truck. 



A. 



Tender 66,000 lbs. 
k— -/0(5" — ->f \(.--9'0 



e6ib.Rail, Q I O O 
Gravel ~ 1^ 

Ballast, ^.LPIfi!':^' ,-_g 



M 

« 1 -r- ■ Enqine in I //J' 

0akT\e5. One Position. ^ 




30,?00lbs. 32,600 lbs. 28,700 lbs. I8,500lbs. 
8'0'- 




mmm* 



B. 



U..l.,i„l. 



I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 )l 12 13 14 IS lb 17 18 I9K)2I « 



\2ii\nf7'l24^2S^22j24 ^^2l\2M 



66lb.Rail. 

SameTrack Depression 
as "A" 



Trailing Tujck 19,000 lbs. 32,000 lbs. 32,000 lbs. 30,000 lbs. 
\<.-8'l"-^-8'4"--^-6'0' 



Engine In -J- 
One fbsition 




yfTTTr-. Trackman's 
" Surface 



Same Engine as shown in 'A". 



C. 



o o o o O O O o 



66 lb. Rail, Stresses, lbs. 

SameTrack I^^^J:",'^ 
^ a A« Base of Rail. 



From MeasuremenTs Taken on a Oaqed Length of 5 Inches 
at Station 14f (5eeA). 



Compressmn 










^'-■-'|W^ 


'/m//\ 


M 


m/p 


% 




y 


%- 


f ^f 





5,000 



10.000 



Fig. 66.— Rail Stresses, U. S. Government Tests; C. B. & Q. R. R. 



In the position it occupied during the test, the greatest de- 
pression of the rail occurred under the forward drivers, the 
rail presenting a sharp acclivity before the engine, and beyond 
the joint the contiguous rail rose slightly above the normal 
level. 

In the diagrarQ, Fig. C, are shown the fiber stresses as measured 
on the base of the rail at Station 14|, midway between ties Nos. 
14 and 15. 



i 



RAILS 



115 



In Fig. 67 are shown the results of tests made by Dr. P. H. 
Dudley with the stremmatograph.* The principle of the strem- 
matograph is to record on a moving strip the molecular com- 
pression or elongation of the metal in a given length of the base 
of the rail, induced by the strains produced by each wheel of 

|<-5*-^CarY-4-Car->K-3^Car-->t<~2^Car->K--15JCar >K-Ten 

I I I I I I t^ I 

Record No.l, 100ib.Rail,6"High. 
19 Miles per Hour. 



5,000 lbs. 



Compression ^ 
Tension 



5,000 lbs 



10,000 lbs; 



5.000 lbs 

Compression ^ 
Tension ^ 

10,000 lbs. 
20,000 lbs 
30,0001b5. 




Fig. 67.— Rail Stresses, Stremmatograph Tests. 



the moving train. These records can be measured by filar 
micrometers under a microscope, and then from the modulus 
of elasticity of the steel we may compute the stresses which 
produce the given compression or elongation per square inch 
of the extreme fiber in the base of the rail. 

* Railroad Gazette, May 20 and October 21, 1898. 



116 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

The object of the stremmatograph is to convert rails of any 
section and weight, of any system of permanent way construc- 
tion, into testing machines in the track and show how^ much 
they are strained, due to the wheel loads and spacing of any type 
of locomotives and cars moving over the rails at the different 
speeds of service. 

Eecord No. 1, Fig. 67, is taken on the New York Central 
and Hudson River Railroad tracks. The instrument was applied 
on the outside rail of a 3-degree curve at the Grand Central Ter- 
minal, over which nearly all of the heavy trains from the terminal 
pass outward; the tonnage was from 20,000 to 25,000 per day, 
and there was more looseness in the track than generally found 
out on the main line. The following are the data of the test: 

Date June 28, 1898 

Weight of rail 100 lbs. per yard. 

Height of rail 6 ins. 

Ballast Stone 

Ties Oak with tie plates 

spaced 24 ins. center 
to center 

Speed, miles per hour 19 

Temperature 90° F. 

Locomotive and tender . 202,000 lbs. 

First car 95,000 lbs. 

Second car 86,200 lbs. 

Third car 82,000 lbs. 

Fourth car 94,950 lbs. 

Record No. 2, Fig. 67, was taken at West Albany (N. Y. C. | 
& H. R. R.R.) September 30, 1897. The engine was drawing five l 
Wagner palace cars at a speed of 40 miles per hour; 80-lb. rail, 
5 ins. high; ties spaced 25 ins., center to center. 

Dr. Dudley states that tests with his stremmatograph show 
that the bending moments in 80-lb. rails under wheel loads used 
in ie05, may be as high as 300,000 to 350,000 in.-lbs., indicating 
a unit fiber stress in the base of the rail of as much as 30,000 
or 35,000 pounds on worn 5-in. 80-lb. sections. With 65-lb. 
rail, stresses were frequently found as high as 40,000 to 45,000 lbs. 



RAILS 117 

41. Manufacture. The Blast Furnace. — The location of the 
plant is usually chosen according to the cost of assembling the 
materials for smelting and getting the product to the market. 
Other things being equal, that furnace will be most economically 
located which is placed near the mines. Where the ores and fuel 
are widely separated, the location is often determined by the 
facihties for marketing the iron, and the furnace is so placed that 
the total of all the costs of transportation and of working shall 
be a minimum. 

The notable present tendency in the iron industry is the 
lower average iron content in the ores used. This tendency will 
undoubtedly continue in the future as the more easily accessible 
portions of the richer deposits are worked out. As a corollary 
to this is the observed tendency toward a decentralization of the 
iron industry, and with a decrease in the iron content of the ore 
used, involving a corresponding increase in cost of transportation 
per unit of iron, there will be an increase in the proportion of 
fuel which goes to the region producing the ore. 

The blast furnace is show^n by Fig. 68. It is a brick structure, 
usually circular in section and built in two parts; the upper 
part resting on columns, while the lower portion rests directly 
on the foundation. The upper portion is sheathed with boiler 
plates. 

In the United States furnaces are worked up to 100 ft. high. 
The best modern practice is, however, about 90 ft. high, with 
a product of 400 to 500 tons per day. The following dimensions 
of the Gary furnaces are typical of the best practice. The 
blast furnaces are 88 ft. in height from the tap hole to the top 
of the furnace lining, and the capacity of each is 450 tons per 
day. Each furnace has four blast stoves. The interior diameter 
of the blast furnace is 15 ft. at the hearth, 21^ ft. at a height 13 
to 21 ft. above the hearth, and 16 ft. at the top. 

The materials for smelting are iron ores, limestone (flux) 
and fuel. Charcoal was first used, and the iron from this fuel 
was of excellent quality on account of the low ash and sulphur 
of the charcoal and its great porosity. It has so little strength, 
however, that its use in the modern high furnaces is prohibited. 



118 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




O 

cT 
o 

I 

us 
m 

s 

O 

tS3 



03 

p 
.2 

O 



00 
CO 

6 



RAILS 119 

Coke is now generally used. Anthracite as a blast-furnace 
fuel is inclined to decrepitate and give trouble from its fineness. 
Bituminous coal is not used, as it cakes and absorbs heat for dis- 
tillation of volatile constituents. 

At Gary,* between the stock pile and the furnace is a line 
of elevated storage bins arranged in two parallel rows. One 
row is for coke and the other for ore and limestone. Above the 
bins are four tracks on which travel two 60-ton electric transfer 
cars. The ore is loaded into the transfer cars by the buckets of 
the overhead ore bridges. The coke and limestone are brought 
up over the bins by rail and deliver their load directly by gravity. 

At the bottom of the bins are spouts controlled by electric- 
ally operated gates, and below these are tracks which run the 
full length of the' bins. Traveling on these tracks are electrically 
operated lorries into which the ore, coke and limestone are 
delivered from the bin spouts. The lorries carry the materials 
to what are known as the ^' furnace skips/ ^ of which there is a 
pair to each furnace. The skips run on an inclined railway 
which runs direct from the pit below the transfer cars to the 
charging platform at the top of the blast furnaces. 

The operation is entirely automatic. Each trip of the skip 
is made in about sixty seconds, and its average load consists 
of about 7000 lbs. of ore or 6000 lbs. of limestone, or 3600 lbs. 
of coke. 

42. Manufacture. Bessemer Process. — For nearly half a 
century the Bessemer process was the principal method used for 
making steel. It was introduced about the time that the 
wrought-iron rails were beginning to show their weakness under 
the increasing loads being placed upon them, dnd by its great 
capacity reduced the cost of steel so that this material could be 
used in place of iron for rails. 

The Bessemer process consists in an agitation of molten 
cast iron in the presence of the oxj^gen contained in the atmos- 
phere. The oxidizing atmosphere is forced up through the 
molten mass, which produces combustion and the removal of 
carbon. The metal from the blast furnace contains, let us say, 
*See Scientific American, December 11, 1909. 



120 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



about 3.5. per cent carbon; this carbon is nearty all burned out, 
reducing the cast iron from the blast furnace to the state of 
wrought iron, then carbon is added to the bath in sufficient 
quantities to change the wrought iron to steel. 




Fig. G9. — Bessemer Converter in Full Blast. 

(By permission of American Technical Society, Chicago, 111.) 

The blow generally requires about ten minutes. The blast 
furnace metal is poured into the converter, which is then placed 
in the position shown in Fig. 69. Compressed air is forced up 



RAILS 



121 



through the molten iron, increasing the heat of the metal, and 
the flame shown in the figure is at first red, but rapidly becomes 
brighter and then suddenly drops and the operator turns down 
the converter and shuts off the blast. Spiegeleisen or ferro- 
manganese is then added to recarbonize the metal. 

43. Manufacture. Open-hearth Process. — The basic open 
hearth process is rapidly supplanting the Bessemer process. (Pee 
Fig. 70.) This is probably due largely to the supply of low- 



3,500,000 



2,500,000 



2000,000 



1,500,000 



500.000 



























1 






























i 




























1 


h 




























a 
^ 






























n 






























' 




1 
























t. 






1 
1 

1 




















1 






I 




li 




















i 


i 


d 






1 




















j 




ool 






1 




















1/ 


\ 


























\\ 




I 








\ 














^ 




1 


vi 








^;' 


\ 














/"\ 


























\< 


o;/ 






'"*» 


















^,^- 


-" 


y 




y 




\ 








/ 


/ 







1850 



1860 



1890 



Fig. 70.— Tons of Rail Rolled, 1850-1913. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. Howson.) 



phosphorus ores being exhausted, as otherwise, on account of 
the great capacity of the Bessemer process the open hearth would 
have little chance. 

With the Lake Superior ores, which are the mainstay of pig- 
iron production in this country, it is difficult to keep the phos- 
phorus content of the steel in the Bessemer process below 0.10 
per cent, but when these ores are treated in the basic open -hearth 
furnace they produce a metal of excellent quality with phos- 
phorus as low as 0.04 or 0.03 per cent. 



122 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



I The open-hearth furnace consists of a basin or hearth. Cur- 
rents of gas and air are passed over the bath, oxidizing the metal. 
In addition to the oxidizing action of the flame, scrap steel 




Fig. 71. — Teeming Ingots at Open Hearth Furnace. 

View Co.) 



(Copyright, Keystone 



is added, which reduces the percentage of carbon and siUcon of 

the molten pig metal. The open-hearth heat requires a much 

onger time than a Bessemer blow, the 80-ton furnaces at Gary 



RAILS 123 

taking about eight or nine hours as compared to the 10 minutes 
blow of a Bessemer converter. 

After the conversion of the steel it is poured into the casting 
ladle and then cast into molds. (See Fig. 71.) If slag is allowed 
to pass into the ingot molds with the steel, the latter is liable 
to be spoiled, and in consequence the steel cannot be poured from 
a lip into the molds, but has to be tapped or teemed from a 
hole in the bottom of the ladle. 

The time allowed after the conversion of the steel and when 
it is held in the converter or casting ladle exercises considerable 
influence upon the finished product. The thorough mixing of 
the recarbonizer, and the opportunities for the impurities to 
separate from the metal and the gas to escape from the molten 
steel are of importance. Dr. P. H. Dudley requires a definite 
interval of time between the additions of the spiegel and the 
teeming of the steel 

44. Manufacture. Duplexing. — On account of the change 
from the Bessemer to the open-hearth process a great deal of 
the Bessemer capacity in the older plants was thrown out of 
employment, and there was naturally a desire to find a use for 
these converters. The duplex process, which is a combination 
of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes, supplies this need. 

In this process the acid Bessemer converter removes the 
silicon together with a considerable portion of the manganese 
and a certain amount of the carbon. The metal is then trans- 
ferred to the basic open-hearth and the remainder of the carbon 
is removed and the phosphorus reduced in the usual manner. 

This process is especially adapted for pig which contains too 
large an amount of silicon for use in either the basic Bessemer 
or basic open-hearth. 

45. Manufacture. The Ingot. — ^The defects of the ingot are 
due mainly to the following three causes : 

1. A funnel-shaped cavity or pipe at the top of the ingot. 

2. Dispersed cavities or blow-holes throughout the ingot. 

3. Segregation of the impurities of the steel, as silicon, phos- 
phorus, manganese, etc., from the mass of the metal and their 
concentration in different parts of the ingot. 



124 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



The pipe is due to the contraction of the interior of the mass 
after the outside has set. After molten steel has been cast into 
an iron mold, the metal in contact with the bottom and the sides 
begins first to solidify, the top next becomes solid and the ingot 
presents the appearance shown in Fig. 72. As the steel in cool- 
ing contracts, a cavity or pipe is formed when the entire ingot 
becomes solid, and as the freezing of the metal takes place from 
the sides and bottom first, this is located in the upper part of 
the ingot where the metal remains fluid longest. 

Blow-holes generally form in the upper half of the ingot, 
which is permeated by honey-combs or dispersed cavities, due 
to the liberation of imprisoned gases, principally 
hydrogen, as well as nitrogen and carbon monoxide. 
These gases are absorbed, dissolved, or occluded in 
the molten steel, but are wholl}^ or partially evolved 
and collect into bubbles when the metal begins to 
solidify. 

Steel contains different impurities, as silicides, 
phosphides, carbides, sulphides, etc., whose freezing 
or solidifying points vary, and all have a lower 
melting-point than the metallic iron, consequently^ 
lornation of those having the lowest melting-point will tend 
r[\ e in Ingot, gradually to segregate from the iron and concentrate 
in the hottest part of the ingot. The top and 
center of the ingot always contains the larger proportions of 
impurities. 

Titanium when rightly applied in the proper amount appears 
to deoxidize the steel, giving a sounder ingot quite free from blow- 
holes, but with a large cavity or pipe. 

Several methods have been tried to eliminate the pipe in the 
ingot, and while none can be said to have attained commercial 
success as applied to the manufacture of rail steel in this country, 
the process invented by Sir Robert Hadfield, a prominent English 
steel manufacturer, deserves mention. In this process after the 
ingot mold, which is furnished with a sand or fireclay top, is 
filled to the desired height with molten steel, a layer of slag 
about one-half an inch thick is placed upon it and on the top 




Fig. 



RAILS 



125 



of this is placed a quantity of charcoal. Then, through suitable 
piping, an air blast is directed in numerous jets upon the char- 
coal, which is burned thereby, the combustion supplying additional 
heat to the top of the ingot, which helps to keep the top fluid 
and to retard its sohdification, while the lower parts are rapidly 




Fig. 73, — Sections of Ingots. A, Hadfield Ingot; B, Piped Ingot. 



losing heat by its transfer to the mold. This ensures ingots 
free from unsoundness, blowholes, piping, or segregation. 

Fig. 73 compares an ingot (A) made by the Hadfield method 
with an ordinary rail ingot (B). A sulphur print taken of 
one half face of the Hadfield ingot indicated very uniform dis- 
tribution of the constituents in the metal and practical freedom 
from segregation, while, as would be expected, the ordinary 



126 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

ingot, with its pronounced pipe, showed marked segregation 
of carbon, phosphorus and sulphur in the piped region to a 
depth of 25 per cent from the top of the ingot, and other regions 
of somewhat varying composition. The manganese showed but 
shght segregation anywhere. 

The Pennsylvania Railroad has ordered 100 tons of ingots 
made by the Hadfield process for the purpose of rolling these 
into rails. 

It may be mentioned that the discard with these ingots 
is remarkably small and about one-half that ordinarily required, 
yet steel is being obtained free from piping and segregation. 

46. Manufacture. Rolling. — The principal points in connec- 
tion with the rolling are given below: 

1. Resistance to wear is a function of fineness of grain. 

2. Fineness of grain is principally a result of mechanical 
treatment at proper temperature.* 

3. Work done on steel above 950^-1050° C. (1742° F.-1922° 
F.) has less effect on changing the size of grain from the normal 
crystallization of the ingot than when the rolhng is done at a lower 
temperature. 

Fig. 74 illustrates views taken by Mr. James E. Howard and 
shows the gradual reduction of the bloom to the finished rail as it 
passes through the successive rolls. 

In 1909 a further investigation was made of the steel at dif- 
ferent stages of the rolling by Mr. Howard at the Watertown 
Arsenal. t In these tests, beginning with the ingot, the structural 
state of the metal was examined by taking cross-sections and 
longitudinal sections. This method was carried through the 
various successive derivative shapes, and the results obtained 
are shown in the large number of illustrations which form the 
body of the report. 

The greater part of the work was devoted to Bessemer rail 
steel, five acid Bessemer heats being made for this series of tests, 

* This should not be interpreted as meaning that resistance to wear is 
not also a function of the chemical composition. 

t Tests of Metals, etc., 1909, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2, Government Printing 
Office, Washington. 



RAILS 



127 




B. Rail from an Early Pass in Roughing C. Same Rail as Shown in B after Further 
Rolls. Rolled from Bloom shown in .4. Reduction. 




A. Cross-section of 8X8-in. Bloom. D. Finished Rail from Same Ingot as Bloom 

and Pieces from Roughing Rolls. 

Fig. 74. — Sections from Bloom to Finished Rail (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. — Howard.) 



J 



128 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

each heat furnishing six ingots about 19^ by 20^ ins. at the bottom 
and about 5 ft. high. 

One of the most important results of the tests was to throw 
light on the question of the amount of work or reduction necessary 
in rolling to develop the full physical qualities of the steel. Mr. 
Wickhorst* draws the following conclusion from the tensile tests 
made of specimens taken at various stages from the ingot to the 
finished rail : 

The results indicate that the metal in the walls of the ingot takes 
comparatively little work or reduction to impart to it what may be 
called its full physical properties of tensile strength and ductiUty. These 
are reached in the bloom, except at the top end. The axial metal at the 
bottom of the ingot also soon reaches its full physical properties, but in 
the upper half of the ingot it must be carried well toward the finished rail 
before these properties are fully developed. 

Where the metal is of fairly even composition and free from spongi- 
ness, it reaches its full ph^^sical qualities of tensile strength and ductility 
at about ten reductions, or a reduction to one-tenth of the original cross- 
section of the ingot, but the interior portion of the upper part of the 
ingot requires twenty-five or more reductions to have its full physical 
qualities developed, that is, the cross-sectional area must be reduced 
below one twenty-fifth of its original amount. 

The effect of finishing temperature is not fully agreed upon, 
and many rolling-mill men feel that the properties of the steel 
depend quite as much on the amount of reduction in the rolls as 
upon the finishing temperature. 

The pass diagram of the rail mill at the South Works plant 
of the Illinois Steel Company is illustrated in Fig. 75. The 
Bessemer ingot is 18 ins. by 19| ins., the heating capacity is 192 
ingots (24 single -hole pits). The ingot is worked direct to rail 
without reheating. The blooming mill is 40-in. pitch diameter 
three-high, and the ingot is given 9 passes and reduced to an 8-in. 
by 8-in. or 8-in. by 8^-in. bloom. The number of rail lengths 
rolled are three and four. 

* Report to Rail Committee Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. Proceedings, Vol. 13, 
1912, p. 794. 



RAILS 



129 



The finishing mill consists of one stand 28-inch P.D. three- 
high first roughing rolls, one stand 28-in. P.D. two-high dummy 
rolls, one stand 28-in. P.D. three-high finishing rolls. 



Finishing Pass 
Z8"x69^" 




18 K 



^1 



k 




2— Roughing Rass 
28 X 56" 



I ^ Roughing Pass 
28x60" 



Blooming Pass 
40x90" 






Fig. 75. — Pass Diagram, Rail Mill, Illinois Steel Company, South Works. 



The number of passes from ingot to rail is as follows : 



Passes 



Blooming 9 

First roughing 3 

Second roughing 1 

Dummy , . . 1 

Finishing 4 



Total 18 

After being rolled and sawed to length the rails pass through 
the cambering machine and are given a head sweep (Fig. 76) 
of from 3 to 8 ins., the A.C.S.E. section 
requiring a greater ordinate than the 
A.R.A. rails. The rails then pass to 

the hot beds and after being allowed Y\q. 76. Head Sweep. 

to cool are transferred to the gagging 

or cold-straightening presses. Unless the gagging is carefully 

done, the rail may be injured by developing injurious strains in 



130 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

the base and web; this is especially true of the A. S.C.E. sections. 
After straightening, the rails are inspected, drilled, reinspected 
and loaded on cars for shipment. 

47. Chemical Composition. Effect of Different Elements. — 
Carbon is the most important element, except iron, in steel, and 
the mechanical properties of iron-carbon alloys are closely con- 
nected with the relative amounts of the two elements. The 
tenacity and hardness of the steel increases rapidly with an addi- 
tion of carbon. 

Silicon in small proportions hardens the steel and stands inter- 
mediate between carbon and phosphorus in this respect. Sili- 
con as high as 0.2 per cent in rail steel of 0.5 to 0.6 per cent car- 
bon probably has no injurious effect. 

Phosphorus hardens steel more rapidly than either carbon or 
silicon. It increases its rigidity but impairs its power to resist 
impact. Small proportions render the metal harder without 
materially affecting its tenacity, but makes the metal at the same 
time decidedly cold-short or brittle when cold. 

Sulphur has little influence on the tensile strength or duc- 
tility. The real effects of sulphur, however, are seen during the 
rolling, a very small percentage causing a great red-shortness, 
or causing it to be brittle when heated at a red heat. Its presence 
in excess of 0.06 or a maximum of 0.08 per cent tends to cause 
cracks to develop during the rolling, which, while they close up and 
are almost imperceptible in the finished rail, nevertheless remain 
as flaws and may form starting-points for rupture when the rail 
is subjected to any sudden stress. With sulphur it is necessary 
to work the metal at a high heat to avoid its cracking during 
manipulation. The '' red-short '' term means that as the heat 
approaches the red color the tendency to crack becomes inten- 
sified. 

Manganese has a general tendency to increase the tensile 
strength and reduce the ductility, this influence varying with 
the amount of carbon present in the steel and becoming more 
marked in the case of high-carbon than low-carbon steels. It 
is possible to keep the manganese down by the use of low man- 
ganese Spiegel, and with low-sulphur steel its presence in excess 



RAILS 131 

of 0.8 per cent, or its use to bring up the tensile strength in place 
of carbon, is dangerous on account of its very distinct hardening 
effect when above 0.6 per cent. In the commercial run of iron, 
where the sulphur varies, the practice is to allow the manganese 
to go as high as 1.1 per cent, and some authorities do not con- 
sider it dangerous unless above 1.0 per cent even with low 
sulphur. Manganese tends to neutralize the effect of sulphur 
and prevent the metal becoming red-short, and, to a limited 
degree the cold-shortness produced by phosphorus. 

48. Chemical Composition of Early Rails. — It was supposed 
that the chemical character of the steel in the earlier rails 
accounted for their excellent wear. 

The old English rails which gave such good service were 
expected to give analyses which would show steel of excep- 
tional uniformity and purity. But this was found not to be the 
case, and the following example of thirteen rails made by John 
Brown & Company, of Sheffield, England, is typical of the vari- 
ation found in the steel of which these old rails were composed: 

Per Cent. 

Carbon. 0.24 to 0.70 

Manganese 312 1.046 

Phosphorus 077 .156 

Sulphur 050 .155 

Silicon 032 .306 

In 1881 Dr. C. B. Dudley, the chemist of the Pennsylvania 
Railroad, made an investigation to determine the relation between 
the chemical and physical characteristics of steel rails, and in 
a paper before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, pro- 
posed a formula for the correct composition of steel rails as 

follows:* 

Per Cent. 

Carbon between .25 and .35; aim at 0.30 

Phosphorus, not above 0.10 

Silicon, not above 0.04 

Manganese, between .30 and .40; aim at. . . . 0.35 * 

* Trans. Am. Inst, of Mining Engrs., Vol. IX (1880-81), p. 321. 



132 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



Dr. Dudley^s conclusions, on account of the careful character 
of the investigation and high reputation of the road, were gener- 
ally accepted as correct and for many years rails were made 
too soft. 

49. Chemical Composition. Present Practice. — Owing to the 
exhaustion of the available low-phosphorus ores, Bessemer rail 
steel is now of necessity a high-phosphorus and low-carbon 
alloy, the mean carbon being about 0.50 per cent, while the phos- 
phorus is limited to 0.10 per cent. Plain basic open-hearth rail 
steel is usually a low-phosphorus and medium unsaturated 
carbon alloy, as most of the phosphorus has been reduced by 
this process from its content in the ores and iron to 0.04 per cent 
or under. This permits in this class of steel rails carbon of 
0.62 to 0.75 percent.* 

The impurity of sulphur was limited formerly to 0.075 to 0.08 
per cent. The manufacturers now charge for this limitation of 
sulphur five cents extra per hundred pounds, and it is, there- 
fore, being omitted from some specifications, although in most 
cases it is required that its content be reported. 

The upper limits for the silicon content are placed quite 
generally at 0.20 per cent. 

The following is the chemical composition specified by the 
American Railway Engineering Association for 100-lb. rails. f 



Elements. 


Per cent for 
Bessemer Process. 


Per cent for 
Open-hearth Process. 


Carbon 

Manganese 

Silicon, not to exceed 


0.45 to 0.55 
0.80 to 1.10 

0.20 

0.10 


0.62 to 0.75 

0.60 to 0.90 

0.20 


Phosphorus, not to exceed 


0.04 



50. Chemical Composition. Special. — The attention of rail- 
way engineers is being directed toward the development of alloy 
steel, or steel containing a percentage of various materials intro- 

* See Proceedings Am. Soc. for Testing Materials, Vol. XI, 1911, P. 
H. Dudley, Ductility in Rail Steels, 
t Supplement to Manual,il914. 



RAILS 133 

duced to give it special mechanical qualities. In general, how- 
ever, on account of the higher cost of production, these steels 
are confined to use in special localities where the conditions are 
especially severe, as on the sharp curves under heavy traffic or 
in tunnels where it is a troublesome matter to inspect or renew 
the rails. 

The requirements of steel alloy may be summarized as follows : 

(1) High resistance to shock. 

(2) High elastic limit. 

(3) Resistance to abrasion. 

Some of the alloys best known are manganese, nickel and 
chromium. 

Manganese steel with C 0.77, P 0.06, Mn 9.93, Si 0.25, and 
Su 0.038 showed about one-third as much abrasion of the head 
as ordinary Carnegie Bessemer in a test, on the Norfolk and 
Western, lasting nineteen months. 

Nickel steel has been used tentatively for railroad rails; but 
while it has the stiffness and resistance to wear which they require, 
too many rails have broken in use. We may hope that this 
treacherousness will be prevented. It is quite possible that a 
change in the percentage of nickel may give an entirely different 
record. The Ma3^ari ore used by the Maryland Steel Company 
contains a natural percentage of chromium and nickel, and the 
results with rail made from this ore seem, so far, to be pretty 
good. The addition of the alloy is, however, in this case not 
very great, and the physical properties of the steel, while im- 
proved, do not vary in any considerable degree from the plain 
steel. The same is true of the titanium rail; in fact titanium 
steel, while generally treated under this head, is not strictly an 
alloy steel. The titanium under the usual practice goes into the 
slag and ordinarily there is no intention of producing titanium 
alloy steel. 

51. Specifications. — A study of the specifications of the 
American Railway Engineering Association will afford a thorough 
knowledge of the present requirements for rails in this country. 

The specifications, which reflect the latest thought, are notice- 
able for the increase in the number of physical tests over those 



134 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

required in earlier specifications. A great many defects, such 
as piping of the ingot, can be adequately guarded against by 
proper physical tests, and in general it would appear desirable 
to leave the producer free in such cases to adopt his own methods 
of manufacture. Within certain limits, however, the speci- 
fications may well be drawn to exclude the practice which is 
known to result in defective material. The desirability of doing 
this is emphasized by the great difference in quality found in 
rollings from different mills, and in some cases for rails from the 
same mill, but rolled in different years. The specifications of 
the New York Central Lines are a good example of specifications 
drawn with a view to eliminating defective practice at the mill. 

The trend of recent specifications is to increase the amount 
of inspection which is being given the rail at the mills. The plan 
of R. W. Hunt and Company of placing inspectors throughout 
the mill to watch the entire process of manufacture is evidence 
of this. 

52. Lengths. — In a bulletin (August, 1909) of the Inter- 
national Railway Congress, this question is very fully discussed. 

In Great Britain and Ireland the railways have been grad- 
ually increasing the length of rails, with a view to reducing the 
number of joints. Some railways still use rails 30 ft. long, and a 
few use 60-ft. rails, but a large number have 45-ft. rails, and it 
appears that this may be taken as a standard for the near 
future. The principal reasons for limiting the length, given by 
the engineers of different railways, may be summarized as fol- 
lows: (1) Difficulty of straightening rails at the mills; (2) cost 
of manufacture; (3) difficulties of transportation; (4) expan- 
sion and contraction; (5) unloading and handling on the track. 

In the United States the standard length is 33 ft., and the 
reasons given for limiting the length are, in general, similar to 
those noted above. Experiments have been made with rails of 
greater length, but on the whole these have not been satisfactory, 
although the opinions expressed by some of the railways give 40 
ft., 45 ft., 50 ft., and 60 ft. as admissible lengths. 

The following interesting report from the Pennsylvania 
Lines is given in the bulletin: 



RAILS 135 

In 1897 a continuous rail, 1050 feet long, made up of 35 80-pound 
30-foot rails joined by angle bars with drilled holes and machine turned 
bolts (no provision being made for expansion and contraction), was laid 
in the eastbound main track, near Brighton, Pa. The ends were held by 
bent rails bedded in concrete, so placed as to bear against the ties. Special 
long and wide angle bars were used at the ends, fastened to the anchor 
ties with lag screws. The track was a tangent with stone ballast. 

The rail crept and kinked out of line badly. An examination made in 
August, 1900, after three years' service, showed that the entire rail crept 
in the direction of traffic (eastward). At the west anchorage, the ver- 
tical holding rails had cut into the cross-ties forming the anchorage frame- 
work, while at the east anchorage there was a space of If inches between 
the vertical rails and the framework. All of the spikes were bent east- 
ward, and both slots and spikes were badly cut. The bolts were all 
slightly sprung. The alignment at the joints was very bad. 

53. Rail Failures. — During the agitation which resulted in the 
revision of the A.S.C.E. sections and the recommendations 
of the American Railway Association for new sections, three 
principal reasons were advancqd as to the probable cause of 
the poor service of some of the later rails. It was claimed that 
the wheel loads in this country were exceeding the limits of 
strength of steel in the rail, and, without resorting to extraor- 
dinary methods of manufacture and consequently greatly 
increased cost, the rails could not be made to carry the loads 
imposed upon them with a proper degree of safety. The stand- 
ard sections then in use were those of the American Society of 
Civil Engineers, and this design of rail, in the heavier sections 
demanded, was stated to be an impracticable one to roll. 

The manufacturers of rails proposed these explanations as 
the real reasons which accounted for the failures of the rails in 
service. The railways, on the other hand, while admitting that 
the metal of the rails in some cases did not stand the heavy 
wheel loads, claimed that this was due to the fact that the steel 
was of poorer quality than that obtainable in rails of earlier 
make, and that sufficient care was not being given to the details 
of manufacture in the various processes at the mills. The in- 
crease in the number of rail failures of the type designated as 
''crushed heads'' and ''split heads'' the manufacturers claimed 



136 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

was caused by the metal breaking down under the excessive 
pressure of the heavy wheel loads, and the railways contended 
rather that they were due to some defect in the structure of the 
individual rails. 

The adoption of the new specifications of the American Rail- 
way Engineering Association and the use of greater care in the 
inspection of the various details in the mill has been followed by 
a considerable improvement in the character of the metal. This 
improvement in the quality of the rails has been further increased 
by the change from Bessemer to open-hearth steel. The use of 
the new sections with the heavy flanges has resulted in a marked 
decrease in the base failures, which it is generally felt were caused 
by the strains produced in rolling and cold straightening due 
to the thin bases in the A.S.C.E. type. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Sections. Early 

Form, Weight, Manufacture and Life of Rails, A Report by Ashbel 
Welsh, M. N. Forney, 0. Chanute and I. M. St. John. Trans. Am. Soc. 
of Civil Engrs., Vol. Ill, p. 87. 

Development of the American Rail and Track, J. Elfreth Watkins, 
Trans. Am. Soc. of Civil Engrs., Vol. XXII, p. 228. 

Sections. Present 

Reports of Rail Committee, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. (contain illustrations 
of most of the sections in use at the present time) . 
Catalogue Illinois Steel Company. 
Catalogue Maryland Steel Company. 

Sections. Foreign 
Steel Rails, W. H. Sellew, 1913, New York, p. 18. 

Stresses 

Bibliography on Stresses to which Rails are Subjected in Service. 
Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 14, 1913, p. 570 (contains com- 
plete bibliography for the years 1887-1911). 



RAILS 137 

Manufacture 

Reports of Rail Committee, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. (contain reports of 
investigations of details of manufacture) . 

Bibliography for the years 1870-1903, Trans. Am. Inst, of Mining 
Engrs., Vol. 37, pp. 617-627. 

Steel Rails, W. H. Sellew, 1913, New York, pp. 344-462 (contains 
descriptions of the different processes and references to most of the 
important articles since 1906). 

Observations on Finishing Temperatures and Properties of Rails, 
Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards, No. 38, 1914, Govern- 
ment Printing Office, Washington. 

Chemical Composition 

Reports of Rail Committee, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. (contain reports of 
investigations of effect of different elements, service of alloy rails, etc.). 

Steel Rails, W. H. Sellew, 1913, New York, pp. 326-344 (gives effect 
of different elements, examples of composition of early rails and present 
practice and references to recent literature). 

The Present Status of Ferro-Titanium in Rail Manufacture, Railway 
Age Gazette, October 23, 1914, p. 750. 

Specifications 

Supplement to Manual, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn, 1914, p. 13. 

Reports of Rail Committee, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. (contain specifica- 
tions adopted by the Association with full discussion of the reasons for 
changes from earlier Specifications) . 

Year Book, Am. Soc. for Testing Materials (contains specifications 
adopted by the Society and examples of current specifications in use). 

Steel Rails, W. H. Sellew, 1913, New York, pp. 463-500 (contains 
Standard American and English Specifications and bibliography for the 
years 1877-1912). 

The Question of the Improvement of Rail Design and Specifications 
from 1830 to the Present Time, W. C. Cushing, Proceedings, Am. Ry. 
Eng. Assn., Vol. 13, 1912, pp. 853-862. 

Rail Failures 

Reports of Rail Committee, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. (contains statistics 
of rail failures on American roads based on annual reports furnished by 
the individual roads to the American Railway Association). 



CHAPTER VII 
OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 

54. Turnouts. Switches. — Switches are generally made in 
10-ft., 15- to 18-ft. and 25- or 30-ft. lengths. The 10-ft. switch is 
used in yards, for all other general uses a medium-length point is 
employed, but at ends of double track or at other places where 
trains pass over the switch at a high rate of speed it is necessary 
to lengthen the switch point, and 25 or 30 ft. has been found 
desirable. 

Referring to Fig. 77, showing the 30-ft. switch point of the 
Pennsylvania Railroad, it will be noticed that the switch plates 
upon which the switch slides when thrown are recessed; in some 
cases pressed steel risers are used on these plates, or the plate 
may be flat. The result of recessing the plate or employing 
pressed risers is to elevate the switch rail slightly above the stock 
rail. This is important, as it is very evident that in a trailing 
point switch with the switch rail at the same height as the stock 
rail, considerable pressure must at times be exerted by a worn, 
wheel, tending to widen the gauge of the main track rails. 

The fact that many roads use switches with the switch rails 
at the same height as the main track rails does not demonstrate 
that such a tendency does not exist, while the experience of 
many trackmen has been that under certain conditions it may 
be an important factor in maintaining the switch in good con- 
dition. 

A cast heel filler block is frequently employed and although 
this is not used on some important roads it is nevertheless of 
importance in strengthening the point and also enables a smaller 
switch angle to be used. A distance of 6^ ins. would appear 

138 



Foinf rails rise^ ) 

n 




gi". J 



LJ 






n 



r 



L 



^Ti 






FC3 



(00 " / '^ 



H I8i' 



n 


|te 4. 

■85 lbs] ^ 
100"] 


n 


te 5. 
\85/bs\ . 


c 






J [ 




ridle 



Pressed S+ee\ or Malleable Iron 
Rail Brace for Switches. 



Plate I 
-- J8i"- 



■^ 



1^1 



Plate Z. 



Plate 3. 






te 6. 



K-^ble Washer for 
stable Brace 



o\0 



o O 



=^^^/ 



Nui 



To face page 138. 



Head of point rails planed down fi 



fbinf rails k vel from BhC 



Foinf rails n'se^ from A foS. Point rails level with stock rait. 




z^r~ 


"TJ ^~T 


,i- 


= [ 


! 
"4 


''~ 




_1- 




1 


V 6'H 




I 


■X 


y » 


° 13 " 


= bit X^ 






^ffii^r 





I J .1 Lag Screw for Bridie Plate. 

fht^Vtasher-i^A^^i^. Bridle Plate. (^ \WJ 



idle Plate for Switches, 100 lbs Rails 



Insulated Joint 

Fig. 77. — Switch, Pennsylvania Railroad 



Fibre Collar Fibre Washer. 



To face page 138. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



139 



to be about the minimum for the use of standard angle bars 
on the inside of the joint; where a heel block is employed, however, 
there is no good reason why the flangeway cannot be reduced 
to 2| ins. giving a heel distance for 100-lb. A.S.C.E. rail of 5f 
ins. It will be noticed that in the Pennsylvania switch a special 
inside splice is used with a heel distance of 5| ins. 

The point of the switch is protected by the bend in the stock 
rail, but is nevertheless exposed to considerable wear. The use 
of manganese points is to be commended in places where the 




Fig. 78.— ^'Economy'' Switch Point. 



ordinary steel will not stand the traffic. Manganese steel, while 
little used for rails on steam roads, is employed largely and with 
excellent results for switches and frogs. 

In yards where the points wear rapidly on account of the 
constant switching on the ladder tracks the ^^ Economy '' 
separable switch points shown in Fig. 78 have given very good 
results. These points are cast of a special alloy and being made 
of a tough material will wear to a thin edge. 

The Wharton switch, illustrated in Fig. 79, is a good example 
of a switch which does not require the main line to be broken. 



140 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



These switches have to be taken at slow speed, and are only 
applicable in cases of side tracks that are not used frequently. 

In entering the switch the portion of the tread of the inside 
wheels overhanging the head of the main rail is lifted up an 
incline by the elevating switch rail until the flange of the wheel 
can pass over the head of the main rail; the switch point on the 
other side at the same time guides the outside wheels into the 
siding. The trip-rail movement showTi in the drawing throws 
the switch automatical^ if a train should trail through it on the 
main track while it is set for the siding. 




Fig. 79.— Wharton Switch. 



The principal requirements of a switch stand may be sum- 
marized as follows: 

No switch stand which can be automatically thrown or 
operated by the switch being run through should be used in 
main-Hne tracks. 

When a switch is manipulated by a stand, without bolt or 
other exterior locking, the rod should be held in position at 
dead center when switch is both open and closed, except where 
controlled by an interlocking device. 

Stands are made to be operated by means of a lever connected 
directly to the standard (Fig. 80A), a gear (Fig. 805), or a cam 
(Fig. 80C). 

In the stand shown in Fig. 80A the switch can be run 
through without damage to the stand or the switch, and the 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



141 



target and lamp always indicate the exact position of the switch 
points. The springs which hold the switch points against the 
stock rail require a pressure of approximately 2000 lbs. to 
start them, and if the points are thrown half way by cars trail- 
ing through the switch, they are snapped to the opposite stock 





A. Lever Operated (Ramapo) 





B. Gear Operated (Century). C. CamC leraced vv denkirk). 

Fig. 80.— Switch Stands. 



rail, where they are held with equal pressure; at the same time 
the position of the target and lamp changes to correspond. 

However, when the switch is thrown by hand, in the regular 
manner, the arrangement is such that the springs remain inopera- 
tive and the throw is accomplished positively and with only tj^^ 



142 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

ordinary resistance incident to throwing the switch points from 
one position to the other. This is because the operator, when he 
raises the handle to throw the switch, releases, at the same 
time, the spindle from the automatic mechanism, and once raised, 
the handle cannot be relowered, or the switch locked, until the 
points have been fully thrown. 

In some stands a breakable cross-arm is provided, and if 
the switch is run through when not properly set, this arm breaks 
without further damage to the stand or points. This is unde- 
sirable, as the stand will then give a wrong indication. It will 
be noted that with the spring mechanism described above when 
the points are run through they are thrown automatically and 
a correct indication is given by the target. 

It will be observed that in the Odenkirk stand shown in Fig. 
80C the cam locks the switch points in both the open and closed 
position at dead center, hence a train in passing over the switch 
has no effect on the switch stand lever. 

55. Turnouts. Frogs. — Frogs are of two general kinds, rigid 
and spring. The rigid frogs are used in yards and also on the 
main line when the traffic through the turnout is heavy. In 
recent years the hard-center rigid frog has replaced to a con- 
siderable extent the spring frog for main line use. The plans 
of the frogs shown in Fig. 81 illustrate typical construction. 
Referring to the drawing of the rigid frog, the tongue filler be- 
tween the lap and main rail is omitted on many frogs and fre- 
quently two fillers are used instead of the four shown. The 
heel filler or riser is of cast steel on this frog, but cast iron is used 
with good results for this filler in connection with an inverted 
T-rail riser. 

Hard-center frogs are now being used in considerable numbers 
where the traffic is heavy. The general design of these is shown 
in Fig. SIC. 

The' rigid frog with a hard center is largely used on the main 
line of the Pennsylvania Railroad and other important roads. 
It appears to be a safer frog than a spring frog, as the latter 
during the winter may cause trouble on account of snow and ice 
accumulating in the mechanism. The principal objection to 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 143 

the rigid frog, that of excessive wear, is overcome by the use of 
the hard center of manganese steel. 

Spring frogs have been designed for main-Une use to avoid 
wear and the jar of the wheel in going over the gap which of 
necessity occurs in the rigid frog. These are illustrated in the 
pla of the frog, shown in Fig. 81B, Referring to the latter 
p it will be noticed that the spring rail, unless opened by 
thv. /heels, is held closed by the springs. The plan shows two 
springs, whereas only one is often used. The two cast-steel fill- 
ers shown are sometimes replaced with one rolled-steel filler. The 
metal foot guard on many roads is replaced with a solid cast block. 

The Conley frog with a raised wing to guide the wheel is 
used extensively in yards; with this frog no guard rail is neces- 
sary, as the point of the frog is protected by the extra elevated 
rail, which performs the same functions as the guard rail with 
the ordinary frog. 

Fig. 82 illustrates a guard rail. A length of 16| ft. was a 
comn^on standard a few years ago, but now shorter lengths are 
considered good practice. Many roads use 11-ft. guard rails 
and the Ajax cast manganese guard rail shown in Fig. 83 is only 
9 ft. long and appears to give good service, not only in yards 
and around terminals, but on the main line as well. 

Guard rails were formerly spiked in place, but owing to the 
importance of securing them firmly to gauge are now generally 
fastened to the stock rail by means of clamps. The ends of the 
rail are sometimes beveled so as to prevent hanging brake beams 
or other defective equipment fouling the guard rail. 

The flangeway of the guard rail is If in. when the gauge is 
standard; however, if the gauge is widened as would be the case 
when the frog is located on a curve, the flangeway must be 
widened by the same amount. The reason for this can be 
readily seen when it is remembered that the guard rail guides 
the back of the wheel and thus protects the point of the frog. 
If the guard rail is moved over when the gauge is widened it will 
carry both wheels with it, and the wheel at the frog would be 
pulled so far away from the point as to be liable to override the 
flangeway. 



! ! I ?'4Uz-| ■■■'ScffswifhmiKlaanH Coffer P, 



Pins _..Makeri Name 

Dafe wade, ^'Figures 





No. 8 Frog. 
Ties tobe spaced 20'c. to c 

^r ■ ^rr- — '^'■ ^[i Downline' 



,<.,^- (Angle S'/B') 

BtyekdHead ^b^-V' ^ Bevekdfieac/ ^ 



., —^-No.of Frog, 
■■'£"■>! WeigFif of Rail 



iT^r^w^ 



Section at Point. Section A-A . 

A. Rigid Frog. '.Standard recommeDded by the New York Central Lines Maint. of Way Committee.) 



Locorfe Stops io permit an openincf of 1^ bet Spr. Rail and Point Rail 



All Bolts to be Ig Diarrt..^ 



Vertical and I" Horizontal Play in Boxes, 

I 



■ Ties to be spaced 20' c 

No. 10 Frog 



C. Hard Center Rigid Frog. (Pennsylvania RaUroad.) 
.-li'Bolts 








ixziFoot^ r-^n. ixr^ifPL ^'xi^zm. ^ ■ fxtrzm i'Mzm. ^xT^ztpi kunrpi I i 



- Abo'jf fS" Centers on Ties- 



^ Spring Rail Bar 



■ About 20' Centers on Ties 



f 't'lj" ? ? ~f~ 



4 X — %- 



^^...3--.^-io'-.-^-.io'—^—io-—^--ii'—-.^M5'--^-6r'^6"--^- «"-->i<---s'-->i<---^'---H<---3''---->i<-6''_>k-g/»"---->!?^^- 



'Fvi" ^ ^ 






-•ii^- 3'—h--IZ" 



<^'ij^" (^(j)9<p(j) 994101 f *^'''' ^ 



Section .at Toe. 



Section at Toint. 



.-.->(<-.../?" ,i<.5/">j<5j'->k-6''-4<-6"">!<"6"->i<- T'—^-6"--^-6'--^-6"--^l^-- 

'■ 1^'noles for li Bolts- 

Reinforcing Bars. 

B. Spring Frog. (Standard recommended by the New York Central Lines Maint. of Way Committee.) 
Fig. 81.— Frogs. 




Section B-5. 



To face page 142. 



144 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




A. '^Safety" Foot Guard. 




B. Wharton Clamp. 
Fig. 82.— Plain Guard Rail. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



145 



The general arrangement of the ties, switch and frog in a 
turnout is shown by Fig. 50, illustrating a No. 11 turnout. The 
distance from the point of the switch to the point of the frog 




Fig. 83. — Ajax Manganese Guard Rail. 



is called the lead. This is determined by the switch angle and 
the frog angle as shown in Fig. 84. 

(j = Gauge; 

p = Theoretical point of frog; 

D = Toe of frog; 

C = Heel of switch rail ; 
AC = Length of switch rail; 
AB = Lesid; 

/^== Frog angle; 
a = Switch angle. 

If we extend PD and AC to intersect at 7, then DI = CI = 
tangent distance of lead curve. 

The switch angle is determined by the length of the switch 
rail and the heel distance. For high speed it is obviously desir- 
able to make this angle small and a longer point or switch rail 



146 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



is used than for turnouts designed for slow speed. The heel 
distance was formerly limited by the room necessary for the 
angle bars, but where a heel block is used this distance can be 
reduced somewhat, as previously explained. 




A a- B 

Fig. 84. — Diagram of Turnout. 



Authorities differ as to the definition of the frog number. 
The American Railway Engineering Association defines it as one- 
half the co-tangent of one-half the frog angle.* (Fig. 85A.) On 





S 
B. 
Tan3. Method S-ine Method. 

Fig. 85. — Definition of Frog Number. 



the other hand, we find in Vol. 14, Bulletin 7 of the Interna- 
tional Railway Congress, July, 1900, the following: 

By a lin 8 crossing, most companies m_ean a crossing whose legs form 
the two equal sides of an isosceles triangle whose sides are eight times the 
length of the base, and it appears that this is the simplest method of 
description. (See Fig. 85jB.) 

* Manual, 1911, p. 85. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 147 

The first definition will give a frog angle of 7° 09' 10'' for 
a No. 8 frog and the second definition gives 7° 10' 00". 

There appears to be some question as to whether it is alto- 
gether desirable to give the frog angles in seconds on the plan. 
A frog can hardly be built closer than two or three minutes and 
an impression of accuracy is given that is foreign to the things 
we are deahng with. The use of seconds should, however, be 
employed in the calculations of the lead and of the dimensions 
of the frog. 

Table VI shows the properties of frogs and switches and 
practical leads recommended by the American Railway Engi- 
neering Association. 

Frogs as sharp as Nos. 5 or 6 are used where local conditions 
make it imperative. Nos. 8 or 9 frogs are generally used for 
turnouts in yards, terminals, and when local conditions make 
it imperative for main tracks to side tracks; Nos. 10 or 11 frogs 
for turnouts from main tracks to side tracks, between main tracks 
for movements against traffic and where local conditions make 
it necessary. Nos. 15 to 20 frogs should be employed for inter- 
locked turnouts used for movements with the current of traffic. 
In general, no main line turnout should be installed for movements 
with the current of traffic unless interlocked, on account of the 
danger of derailment when running over a facing-point switch. 

56. Derails. — Derails are used at interlocking plants, as will be 
explained in Chap. XV., and at outlying switches to prevent 
cars standing on the side track being moved accidently too near 
the main track and thereby endangering trains. The earher 
forms of derails consisted of an ordinary switch point or stub 
switch in the outside rail. Derails used at the present time 
generally leave the track unbroken, as with the Hayes derail, 
shown in Fig. 86, or the Wharton derail, which is similar in 
design to the Wharton switch. The use of the Wharton derail 
is confined principally to main line derails at interlocking plants; 
while at outlying switches and slow speed tracks a derail of 
the form shown in Fig. 86 is generally employed. This is con- 
nected with the switch stand to insure its being thrown when 
the switch on the track to which it belongs is operated. 



148 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



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104.61 
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1136 
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Properties of Switches. 

For all Switches 

Thickness of Point = J" 

and Heel Distance 


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Properties of Frogs. 
Thickness of all Frog Points. Oi". 


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OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



149 



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Rectangular Co-ordinates to the Quarter 
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150 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



67. Crossings. — For crossings under 10 degrees movable-point 
frogs (Fig. 87) are used and generally these crossings are in the 







P^-^^-T i !' 'MK 









Fig. 86. — Hayes Derail. 




Fig. 87. — Wharton Movable Point Frogs with Manganese Steel Knuckle 

Rails and Points. 

form of slip switches which permit not only a crossing of the tracks 
but enable trains to pass from one track to the other if so desired. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



151 



In Fig. 101 is shown a slip switch with movable-point frogs. 
The figure illustrates how trains can pass from one track to 
another track, or cross over the track as desired. These switches 
are used extensively at terminals, as shown in Fig. 194. 

In the main line on important roads the crossing frogs are 
now nearly always of special steel. While the first cost of such 
frogs is much more than when carbon steel is used, this expense 
has seemed to be fully warranted by their longer life. 




Section 
B-B. 



Fig. 88. — Hard Center Crossing. 



Fig. 88 illustrates a hard center crossing. It will be noticed 
that the intersections are made of solid castings, which is a 
much more permanent construction than the bolted frogs for- 
merly employed. The base plates are frequently omitted in the 
cast frogs. The connection between the castings and the rails is 
an important detail of construction, as the arms of the casting 
if too long or thin may break off under the heavy pounding of 
the trafiic. 



152 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



58. Joints. — The common angle bar is shown . in Fig. 89. 
This figure also shows joints with deep girder flanges which add 
strength to the bar at the gap between the two rails where the 
entire bending moment must be carried by the bars from one 
rail to the other. 

The Swedish government roads as early as 1876 used a deep 
girder splice bar with the depending flange vertical, instead of 
inchned under the bottom of the rail. The advantage of bring- 
ing the bottom of the flange under the rail is, that the vertical 




D. 'Se-lnch Angle Bar. 



E. 30- inch Angle Bar 



F. 30-inch 100 percent Joint. 



Fig. 89. — Joints Tested at Watertown Arsenal. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.) 

axis of the bar lies inside of the bearing surface of the bolts and 
when the bar is subjected to load the tendency to rotate the 
flange outward is less than in the case of the vertical depending 
flange and a more stable construction is obtained. 

Fig. 90 shows base-supported joints. 

There seems to have been a return on many roads from the 
patented joint to the angle bar within the last few years. The 
most improved type of angle bar has a heavy head, and some of 
the roads use a high-carbon steel, heat treated and oil tempered 
to obtain the required strength. 

In the low-carbon bars made by the Bessemer process, the 
carbon does not exceed .10 to .20 per cent. Most of the high 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



153 



carbon steel angle bars furnished by the Cambria Steel Company 
have been between the limits of .45 to .55 carbon, not over .05 
phosphorus and sulphur, and not over .70 manganese. All of 
these bars must be hot punched because of the high carbon, and 
the best results are obtained by oil treatment. The average 




uu 



p^*-^ 




T-A^^A^^^S^ 



Fig. 90. — Base Supported Joints. 



results obtained on a considerable tonnage of these bars were as 
follows : 



Elastic Limit 
Lbs. per Sq.in. 



61,300 
81,360 



Ultimate 

strength. 

Lbs. per Sq.in. 



93,250 
124,540 



Elongation, 
in 2 Ins. 



20.4 
14.4 



Reduction 
of Area. 



29.8 
32.3 



natural 
oil treated 



The American Railway Engineering Association recommends 
the following: 

High carbon steel joint bars. 

Phosphorus, 0.04 per cent maximum. 
Tensile strength, 85,000 lbs. per sq. in. 
Heat treated, oil-quenched steel joint bars: 
Phosphorus, 0.04 per cent maximum. 
Yield point, 70,000 lbs. per sq. in. 
Tensile strength, 100,000 lbs. per sq. in. 
The Rail Committee of the American Railway Engineering 
Association several years ago made a series of interesting tests 
on rail joints at the Watertown Arsenal. 

(1) Three joints of each kind were furnished, of which two 
were used for testing and the third joint was reserved for future 
use if needed. 



154 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



(2) All joints were full-bolted. Several of the. joints first 
tested had various sized openings between the rail ends. After 
the test of the first three joints, all other joints were changed 
so that the opening between the ends of the rails was as close 
to three-eighths of an inch as possible. The span between sup- 
ports in the testing machine was 30 ins. 

(3) One joint was tested with the load first applied to the 
base, in increments of 2000 lbs., until the limit of 32,000 lbs. 
was reached, and then the joint was reversed and the load applied 
on the head until the joint failed or the limit of the machine 
was reached. 



150,000 



100,000 



50.000 















^ 


'/^ 
























/ 
























U 




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1 






























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ill 






























m 






























f 































'0 .! .2 .3 A .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 U5 

De^flec+ion in Inches- 



Fig. 91. — Diagram of Watertown Arsenal Tests on Joints. (Am. Ry. Eng. 

Assn.) 

(4) The second joint was tested by first applying the load 
on the head and then reversing it, applying the load on the 
base, until the limit was reached. 

(5) With the exception of the joints furnished by the Cam- 
bria Steel Company and Mr. A. Morrison, the joints were selected 
from material which had been furnished by the manufacturers 
to the railroad companies in the regular routine of business, and 
therefore fairly represent the material ordinarily furnished by 
the manufacturers. 

Fig. 89 shows some of the joints tested and the results of the 
tests on these joints are presented in Fig. 91. The material in 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



155 



the different splice bars varies so widely that it is difficult to 
judge of the value of the different designs. The excellent results 
obtained with the Dudley joint (Fig. D) is probably due to the 
high strength of the metal as compared to the other joints tested. 
(See Table VII.) 

TABLE VII - 

Properties of Joints Tested at Watertown Arsenal 
(Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.) 





Rail. 






Joint. 




Fig. 


Weight 
lbs. per 










Man- 


Elastic 


Ultimate 






Area. 


I of 2 


Car- 


gan- 


Limit. 


Strength. 




Section. 


Sq.in. 


Bars. 


bon. 


ese. 


Lbs. per 


Lbs. per 


• 








% 


% 


Sq.in. 


Sq.in. 


A 


100 


A.R.A. ^'B^' 


7.23 


43.82 


.25 


.43 


35,500 


60,000 


B 


100 


A.S.C.E. 


4.60 


13.40 


.19 


.47 


41,000 


60,500 


C 


100 


P.S. 


3.96 


30.76 


.63 


.50 


41,000 


63,000 


D 


100 


Dudley 


3.37 


9.36 


.36 


1.20 


56,000 


95,500 


E 


100 


P.S. 


4.91 


13.99 


.33 


.43 


39,500 


60,500 


F 


100 


A.S.C.E. 


13.60 


47.20 






41,000 


87,500 



In examining the functions the joint performs in carrying 
the load from one rail to the other, Dr. Dudley has observed 
that the splice bars, by fitting tightly to the inclined surfaces of 
the head and base of the rail, are able by their friction to trans- 
mit large horizontal strains from one rail to the next. The pro- 
portion of the bending moment of the rail transmitted to the 
splice bar by this means is important in determining the correct 
proportions of the joint. 

To determine the friction of the bar, tests were made at the 
Watertown Arsenal in 1904. There was first made a series of 
track observations on the Boston and Albany Railroad at Faneuil 
station, near Boston, to determine the resistance of nuts on bolts 
of splice bars (as found in the track) against further tightening. 

Tests were made with a wrench 33 ins. long, the resistance 
against tightening being shown by the force required at the end 
of the wrench to turn the nuts forward. The average of 60 
observations was 52 lbs. on a 33-in. wrench. 



156 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



Tests were then made at the arsenal on the frictional resist- 
ance of two 6-hole sphce bars on two sections of 6-in. 100- 
Ib. rail. Spring nut locks were used under the nuts, f-in. bolts, 
10 threads per inch, length of wrench used 33 ins. The results of 
the tests are shown in Table VIII. 

TABLE VIII 

Frictional Resistance of Splice Bars 

(Watertown Arsenal) 



Tightening Force Applied to 
Wrench (Pounds). 


Frictional Resistance of Joint 


Initial 
(Pounds). 


Continuous 
Movement 
(Pounds). 


50 

75 

85 — 5 bolts 


37,500 
46,900 
72,800 
72,800 
31,000 


33,800 
44,700 
65,500 
65,500 
28,600 


110—1 bolt 


50 



The maximum pull applied to five of the bolts in the third 
test, 85 lbs. on a 33-in. wrench, was the limit of strength of the 
bolts. This pull on the wrench caused a permanent elongation 
of about .06 to .10 in. on each of the five bolts. The sixth 
bolts resisted a pull of 110 lbs. on the wrench without material 
elongation.* 

After making observations on the frictional resistance in these 
tests, the first test, with bolts tightened to 50 lbs. pull, was 
repeated. 

The splice bars were then used on one piece of rail, using 
four bolts, the nuts of which were tightened with a pull of 50 lbs. 
on a 33-in. wrench. The initial resistance was 50,900 lbs. and 
movement continued under 31,200 lbs. 

Tests with four bolts in one piece of rail, with 50 lbs. pull on 
the wrench, were repeated with an initial resistance of 59,200 
lbs. The movement continued under 41,600 lbs. 

* The tendency is now to use bolts of steel with an elastic limit of 75,000 
lbs. instead of the low carbon steel formerly employed for this purpose. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



157 



Dr. P. H. Dudley found that a well-fitted splice bar for a 
5-in. rail required over 4000 lbs. per linear in. of one-half the 
length of the bar to overcome the friction in the rail ends, and for 
90-lb. and 100-lb. 6-in. rail, 4500 and 4800 lbs. respectively. 

We are probably not warranted in taking the frictional resist- 
ance of the joint at more than 40,000 lbs.; nor can the friction 
between the rail and the splice bar be well increased by the use 
of special joints, without at the same time increasing to an unde- 
sirable extent the stresses in the 
rail, caused by sudden changes 
in temperature. 

It will be seen that the fric- 
tional resistance may cause an 
initial tensile stress of about 
4000 lbs. per square inch in the 
100-lb. rail at times of a sudden 
fall in temperature. 

The tension set up in rails 
of lighter section in falling tem- 
peratures, before they render or 
give in the splice bars, is con- 
sidered by Dr. Dudley to be 
important and indirectly respon- 
sible for a large number of the 
cracked or broken rails which 
occur during falling temperatures. 

If we consider the effect of frictional resistance between the 
spUce bar and the rail, it is apparent that the bar shown in Fig. 
92 will act as an integral part of the rail until the longitudinal 
shear at the surfaces of contact of the rail and the bar exceeds 
the resistance caused by friction on these surfaces. This resist- 
ance for a 20-in. spHce bar may be taken as 4000 lbs. per linear 
inch for the entire joint, of 1400 lbs. per square inch for the 
upper surface of contact, and 500 lbs. per square inch for the 
lower surface of contact. 

It is seen from the figure that the surface friction is sufficient 
to carry a total shear at the section of 24,000 pounds and it 




Shear 
Fig. 92.— Shearing Stress in 100-lb. 

A. S. C. E. Rail and Angle Bar. 
(Total shear in section, 24,000 lbs.) J 



158 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



would appear that the maximum bending moment in the rail 
would be transmitted to the splice bars without slipping.* 

The deflection curves of Fig. 91 are characteristic of most 
joint tests and show a well-defined point in the curve similar to 



Fiber Angle 
Thimble 
Washer 
Iron Washer 
Washer 




Sq.Hd. 
Nut 



A. Insulated Angle Bar. 




Deflection, Inches. 

B. Tests of. 
Fig. 93. — Insulated Joints. 

the elastic limit in the ordinary bending test, where the load 
rapidly drops off. It seems that at this point shpping takes 

* As the vertical shear is equal to the horizontal shear this would cor- 
respond to a wheel load of 48,000 lbs., or by taking a dynamic augment to 
the static wheel load of 60 per cent an equivalent static wheel load of 30,000 
lbs., corresponding to a static axle load of 60,000 lbs. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



159 



place between the joint and the rails and most of the load is then 
carried by the bar riding on the bolts. 

Between the two rails the splice bars must carry the entire 
moment, and unless the strength of the bar is made sufficient 
for this there results an excessive deflection at this point. 

An insulated joint is shown in Fig. 93A. In the earlier types 
wooden insulation was used, but fiber is now generally employed. 
On account of the low crushing strength of the insulating fiber 
as compared with that of steel, these joints require considerable 
attention from the trackmen to keep the track in proper line and 
surface at the places where they are used. Fig. 935 shows com- 
parative tests on insulated and uninsulated angle bars. 




Harvey Grip Thread. 

Fig. 94.— Track Bolts. 

Compromise joints are used to bring the tops of different or 
worn sections of rails to the same level. 

59. Bolts. — The bolt used in the joint is shown in Fig. 94. 
The Harvey grip thread shown on one of the bolts of the plan 
is a specially cut thread which acts as a nut lock and prevents 
the nut becoming loosened in service. 

Bolts may have cut threads or rolled. Those in the figure are 
cut and when rolled the shank of the bolt is smaller in dia- 
meter than the thread. 

The bolts in the joints are placed with the nuts alternately 
on the inside and outside of the rails except where the rails are 
less than 4| ins. in height, in which case the nuts are placed on 
the outside. The joints in one fine of rail are generally placed 
opposite the middle of the rail on the other fine of the same 
track. 



160 RAILWAY IMAINTENANCE 

The American Railway Engineering Association recommends 
the following for the chemical composition and strength of track 
bolts : 

Medimn Carbon Steel Track Bolts: 

Phosphorus, 0.04 per cent maximmn. 

Tensile strength, 55,000 lbs. per sq. in. 
Heat-treated Steel Track Bolts: 

Phosphorus, 0.0-4 per cent maximum. 

Yield point, 75,000 lbs. per sq. in. 

Tensile strength, 100,000 lbs. per sq. in. 

60. Nut Locks. — The customary form of nut lock is the spring 
washer. This is shown in Fig. 95. The real advantage of the 





FiG._95. — Verona Nut Locks. 

spring washer lies in the fact that it not only tends to prevent 
the nut backing off from the bolt but it takes up wear in the 
splice bar and keeps the joint tight. As a matter of fact loose 
bolts in joints are generally due to this wear rather than the nuts 
turning on the bolt. 

The spring washer to be of any real value should be made 
from steel of a high grade and uniform temper. The following 
chemical composition has been found satisfactory: 

Per Cent 

Carbon LOO 

Phosphorus 03 

Sulphur 03 

Silicon 10 

Manganese 50 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 161 

Irregular carbon will result in breakages, or too many soft 
springs, which will become set solid after being tightened. The 
permissible variation in carbon should not exceed ten points 
either way from the figure given above. 

61. Spikes. — Rails should be spiked in fall with four spikes to 
each tie. The outside spikes of both rails should be on the same 
side of the tie, and the inside spikes on the opposite side of the 
tie. Ihe inside and outside spikes should be separated as 
far apart as the face and character of the tie will permit. The 
ordinar}^ practice is to drive the spikes 2^ ins. from the outer 
edge of the tie. 

In this country the ordinary nail spike is generally used for 
fastening a rail to a wooden tie. The most important objections 
to the spike, are: first, in the soft-wood tie the spike does not 
hold with sufficient firmness to keep the rail securely to the tie; 
second, in driving the spike into the softer woods the fibers are 
broken to an unusual extent. As a result they do not withstand 
lateral pressure of the rail, and consequent^ the spike hole is 
rapidly increased to such an extent that the spike no longer 
holds. Water collects in the enlarged hole and decay sets in. 

When a spike has been redrawn from the tie on account of 
relaying the rail or other causes, a wooden tie plug should be 
driven into the spike hole to prevent water collecting in the hole. 
The tie plugs should be creosoted to protect the exposed fibers 
of the tie which have been cut by the spike, and are therefore 
particularly susceptible to decay. This is especially important 
in the case of a treated tie where the spike hole frequently reaches 
through the region penetrated by the treatment and exposes the 
untreated part of the wood. 

Fig. 96 shows the dimensions of the common spike. 

The screw spike. Fig. 97, is beginning to attract serious atten- 
tion from American Engineers, and over 730 miles of screw- 
spike track is now in service in this country. 

Apparently the French railways were about the first in Europe 
to begin the use of the screw spike (tirefond) as a rail fastening. 
Commencing about 1860 they rapidly adopted it as a standard 
and it is to-day universally employed by the large systems. 



162 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



While the German, Austrian and Belgian railways did not 
adopt this style of fastening as early or as generally as those of 
France, and the use of the hook is quite widespread, they use 
the screw spike extensively. In 1899 the general employment 
of the screw spike on all Knes of the system was prescribed for 
the Prussian Government Railways. 




Goldie Type. 




Fig. 96. — Common Spikes. 



Diam. of Hole required for p, 
this 5crew= ^ 




K- 2 

Fig. 97. — Screw Spike. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. Gushing.) 



In Great Britain most of the railroad systems use bull head 
rails which do not rest on the ties, but on heavy-cast iron chairs. 
The fastenings for these are generally two metal spikes and two 
wooden trenails. The London and North Western Railway use 
two screw spikes instead of the trenails; but it does not appear 
that the Enghsh roads, as a rule, consider the screw spikes 
necessary. 

That the screw spike is not thoroughly perfected is shown by 
the devices which have been employed in Europe to strengthen 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 163 

it, as the Collet wooden screw trenail, and the Thiollier helical 
lining. In this connection Mr. Cushing states,* referring to 
recent tests on the Pennsylvania : 

Some of the same difficulties are arising in the new tests, which 
clearly show that a screw spike is not a successful device for securing 
rails to wooden ties, unless a successful method of repairs from time to 
time can be devised, which will enable one to ^' cure'' the screw spike 
when it becomes loose, which it does inevitably in the course of time in 
many instances, under heavy traffic and severe conditions. 

62. Tie Plates. — The general tendency at the present time is 
more and more toward the use of tie plates. With the intro- 
duction of the treated tie it is necessary to adopt some means 
to protect the wood from wear at the rail bearing on account of 
the longer life of- the tie. 

The objections which have been made to tie plates are, i&rst 
of all, that they buckle severely. This, however, has taken place 
only when the plates were too thin, and the present plates have 
in general ample strength to resist buckling. 

Plates were formerly made with the idea of being anchored 
to the tie so as to prevent the communication of the motion of 
the rail to the plate. As a result, we have a large number of 
different forms of plates, provided with prongs, spines or flanges 
on the bottom, which are pressed into the tie either by the weight 
of the passing load or before the rail is laid. (See Fig. 98.) 

The chief objection which has been made to plates, particu- 
larly in connection with the use of softer woods, is that not only 
do they not aid in preventing the wear of fibers, but they actually 
assist the rail in causing this wear. This is clearly shown in 
Fig. 99. The general tendency on the Continent has been 
toward adopting more and more rigidly flat plates, with firm 
fastenings. The almost universal adoption of this principle 
is very striking at the present day. 

On the French Eastern the rail rests on the tie without metallic 
plates, except on very sharp curves (of 984.25 ft. radius and under). 

* Experiments with Treated Cross-ties, Wood Screws, and Thiollier 
Helical Linings, W. C. Cushing, Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.,Vol. 15, 
1914, p. 265. 



164 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



Plates of poplar or felt are placed under the rail, solely to protect 
the wood against the mechanical action of the base. These 




? 



A. McKee. 







! ! 



1 



C. Goldie. 



B, Wolhaupter. 




"7 7 

D. Clary 




E, Sellers. 



□ c 
o 








o 

3 a 



F. P. & L. E. 



Fig. 98. -Tie Plates. 



plates are compressed before being used, so that they will not be 
further compressed under the pressure of the rail. The plates 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 165 

are furnished 0.28 in. thick, and the compression brings them to 
0.16 in. 

The ties are adzed at the treating plant so that a place is left 
for this flat wooden shim. When the track is laid, the shim is 
placed in position and screw spikes are screwed into the tie. In 
the course of time the motion of the rail wears out this shim, 
and a new one is substituted by giving the screw spike one or 
two upward turns. A new plate is then shoved in endwise and 
the screw is fastened. The length of life of one of the modern 




Fig. 99. — Wear of Tie under Tie Plate. (Bureau of Forestry.) 

shims on the main-line tracks, such as that of the French Eastern 
from Paris to Strassburg, is about one and one-half to two years. 
Dr. Von Schrenk gives the theory upon which this wooden 
plate is used as follows:* 

The principal function of the plate has been said to consist of pre- 
venting the wear of the fibers of the tie immediately under the rail base. 
This wear consists in the actual breaking of the wood fibers under a 
grinding and tearing action rather than in crushing them. 

In considering the function of the tie plate we have three bodies to 
deal with: the tie, the tie plate, and the rail. Motion might conceivably 
take place either between the rail and the tie plate or between the tie 

* Cross Tie Forms and Rail Fastenings, with Special Reference to Treated 
Timbers, Forest Service, Bulletin No. 50. 



166 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

plate and the tie. When a metal tie plate is used on the hard-wood tie, 
and is successfully anchored in it, the tie plate and the tie act as one body, 
over which the rail moves back and forth. As soon as the tie plate loses 
its holding power, however, the chances are that when the rail moves 
across the tie the tie plate wWl oscillate back and forth in unison with the 
rail. This results in breaking the wood fibers underneath the plate. 
Where a wooden plate is used, it adheres so closely to the wood that when 
the rail moves across the tie the wooden plate and the wooden tie are 
liable to act as one, even though the tie plate is not anchored to the tie. 

The Forest Service tests on the Chicago and Northwestern 
and Northern Pacific tracks have not shown results favorable to 
wooden tie plates. The results thus far have been that the 
plates split badly. It has been thought, however, that this is 
largely due to the poor manner in which the plates were placed. 

Some of the more recent metal plates in the United States 
have been made with the idea of fastening the tie plate to the tie 
with two screw spikes and using two common spikes to hold the 
rail down (Fig. 98F). This seems to be in accord with the latest 
thought, both on the Continent and in this country, that the plate 
must be held securely to the tie and whatever motion takes place 
will be between the plate and the rail rather than between the 
plate and the tie. 

63. Anti-Creepers.-^With the increase in density of traffic 
and as second, third and fourth tracks have been built limiting 
the direction of traffic, there has developed a growing tendency 
for the rail to creep or move in the direction in which the trafl[ic 
moves. On account of the joint . ties generally being spiked 
through slotted holes in the joint, these ties move with the rail, 
with the result that correct spacing of the adjacent ties is not 
maintained.* 

To overcome this difficulty numerous devices are used for 
anchoring the rails to the ties. These are generally fastened to 
the base of the rail and bear against the side of the tie; when 
employed in sufficient numbers they are efficient in preventing 
the movement of the rail and reduce the expense of maintaining 
the track. 

* See article 74, some roads are experimenting with unslotted joints. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



167 



Fig. 100 shows different types of anti-creepers and Fig. 101 
is a view of the tracks of the Pennsylvania at its New York 
terminal, where anti-creepers are employed. This figure also 
illustrates the joint used by this company and a hard center 
frog. Double-shoulder tie plates have been used with consider- 
able success in preventing the movement of the rail. 





A. P. & M. B. Vaughan. 

Fig. 100. — Anti-Creepers. 



64. Bumping Posts. — Fig. 102 illustrates different types of 
bumping posts. The rail in the ElUs post is anchored down 
ahead of the post by four l|-in. anchor rods, extending into the 
ground 5 ft. 6 ins. to an anchor timber, and the resulting reaction 
when the car hits the post is supposed to be vertical. The 
rails next the post are connected to the adjacent rails by extra 
long splice bars with eight bolts to each pair of splices. In the 
Hercules post, a coil spring is placed back of the bumping sur- 
face with the intent gradually to absorb the shock given by the 
car. Wheel stops consisting of a series of corrugations over 



168 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 





Fig. 101. — P. & M. Anti-Creepers, Pennsylvania Tunnel and 
Terminal Co., New York. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 



169 



which the wheels pass are sometimes used in place of a bumping 
post, and a covering of several inches of sand over the rail has 
been employed where the momentum of the moving train does 
not have to be overcome in a short distance. 





A. Ellis. B, Buda. 

Fig. 102. — Bumping Posts and Wheel Stop. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Turnouts " 

Manual, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, pp. 88-93. 

Maintenance of Way Standards, F. A. Smith, 1906, New York, 
pp. 544-549, 514-524 (contains standard switches, switch stands, frogs 
and guard rails used by different roads). 

Track Formula and Tables, S. S. Roberts, 1912, New York. 

Modern I.ocation of Standard Turnouts, C. M. Kurtz, 1910, San 
Francisco. 

Joints 

Tests of Rail Joints at Watertown Arsenal, made under direction of 
Committee on Rail, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Bulletin No. 123, May, 1910. 

House Documents, Vol. 78, No. 291, 58th Congress, 3d Session, 
1904-05, Tests of Metals (contains report of angle bar tests at the 
Watertown Arsenal to determine the frictional resistance of the bar.) 

Report on the Question of Rail Joints (all countries except France, 
Belgium, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, 
Servia, Turkey, Egypt and countries using the English language), 1910, 
Blum in Bulletin of the International Railway Congress, Vol. 24, Part 
1, p. 1701. 



170 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




C. Hercules. 




D. Saunders Wheel Stop. 
Fig. 102.— Bumping Posts and Wheel Stop. 



OTHER TRACK MATERIAL 171 

Note sur le joint asym^trique, H. Bouchard, 1909, in Revue G6n6rale 
des Chemins de Fer, Vol. 32, p. 9. (Describes theorj'-, construction and 
results with favorable rail joint.) 

Report on the Question of Rail Joints (France, Belgium, Italy, Spain 
and Portugal, Chateau), 1910, in Bulletin of the International Railway 
Congress, Vol. 24, Part 1, p. 1427. 

Improvements and Experiments in Rail Joints, Engineering News, 
Vol. 64, p. 281. 

(Abstracts information from reports to International Railway Con- 
gress on practice in the United States, Great Britain, France, Belgium 
and Austria-Hungary.) 

General Discussion on Rail Joints, Bulletin of the International Rail- 
way Congress, Vol. 25, p. 405. 

Report on the Question of Rail Joints, Countries using the English 
Language, Alexander Ross, ibid.. Vol. 23, Part 2, p. 689. 

Spikes and Tie Plates 

Conservation of Cross-ties by Means of Protection from Mechanical 
Wear, J. W. Kendrick, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 11, Part 1, 
1910, pp. 581-630. 

The Question of Screw Fastenings to Secure Rails to Ties, W. C. Cush- 
ing, ibid., Vol. 10, Part 2, 1909, pp. 1456-1548. 

Experiments with Treated Cross-ties, Wood Screws and Theollier 
Helical Linings, W. C. Cushing, ibid., Vol. 15, Part 2, 1914, pp. 265-306. 

The Protection of Ties from Mechanical Destruction, Howard F. 
Weiss, Proceedings American Wood Preservers' Assn., 1914. 

Cross-tie Forms and Rail Fastenings, with Special Reference to 
Treated Timbers, Forest Service Bulletin, No. 50. 

Development in the Use of Screw Spikes, Railway Age Gazette, March 
14, 1913, p. 499. 

Creeping of the Track 

Das Schienenwandern, Ursache und Abhilfe, W. Kunze, Glasers 
Annalen ftir Gewerbe und Bauwesen, 1909, Vol. 65, p. 122. (Considers 
cause of creeping in rails and devices for its prevention.) 

On the Working Loose of Screws when Used as Rail Fastenings, 
L. Schliissel, 1907, Bulletin of the International Railway Congress, Vol. 
21, p. 3 (concludes that wedge fastenings should be substituted for 
screw fastenings). 

Creeping of Rails in the Direction of the Trains, K. den Tex, 1911, 
ibid., Vol. 25, p. 292. 



CHAPTER Vni 
BALLAST 

The principal function of the ballast is first to distribute the 
pressure from the ties to the grade and second to provide drain- 
age and prevent water collecting around the ties. Water if 
retained in the ballast will cause the track to heave under the 
action of the frost and will also result in rapid deterioration of 
the ballast itself due to the churning action of the ties. The bal- 
last should be composed of a material sufficientl}^ durable to 
be able to resist the action of the ties and the tools used in tamp- 
ing, without undue breaking up and pulverizing. It should be 
heavy enough and composed of large enough particles to pre- 
vent its ])eing disturbed b}^ the draft from rapidly moving trains 
and giving rise to objectionable dust. 

As will be seen from the description of the various kinds of 
material used for ballast, the engineer has in most cases some 
choice in the selection of the ballast he may employ. This 
should be borne in mind and a careful investigation made of 
the materials the country affords before a final selection is made. 

65. Kinds of, for First-class Track. — The following materials 
are suitable for first-class track: Crushed stone, slag and gravel.. 

Broken stone is generally considered the best material for 
ballast. It should be made from a hard, tough and dural^le stone 
as limestone, trap or granite. It should be screened in revohnng 
screens and be free from dirt, dust, rubbish and small particles. 
It is largely used on account of the excellent drainage it affords 
and its freedom from dust. 

Slag in many cases furnishes a ballast nearly as satisfactory 
as crushed stone and finds extensive use on roads in the vicinity 

172 



BALLAST 173 

of furnaces and steel mills. The best product is obtained by 
crushing as in stone ballast. Granulated slag, which is the flux 
from the furnaces broken down while hot with a water jet, is not 
desirable for first-class track, but a great deal of it is used for 
ballast on side tracks and for the first lift on new track. 

Gravel ballast is very largely used, probably on account of 
its relative cheapness. While it affords an excellent riding track 
when first surfaced, it does not give as good drainage as stone or 
slag, and the track requires more attention than with stone. 
However, when the ballast is composed of coarse and clean gravel 
the results obtained are fairly satisfactory. Gravel should be 
screened or washed if prevention of dust is an object. 

Screening has been used on the Pennsylvania Lines and on the 
Lake Shore for gravel containing a considerable proportion 
of sand. Where the bank contains much clay or loam the gravel 
may be washed. Instead of screening or washing to get rid 
of the dust some roads oil the ballast. The sprinkling is done 
from a flat car arranged with pipes over the roadbed and the 
oil can be applied at a speed of about 4 miles per hour. 

66. Kinds of, for Branch Lines. — For branch lines and slow- 
speed traffic an inferior grade of gravel or granulated slag may 
be used. Cinders, sand and stone screenings are also applicable 
to this class of track. Cinders, which are obtained from the 
coal burned in the locomotives, are remarkably free from frost 
and are frequently used in wet places where it is necessary to 
give the track attention during the winter season. Burnt clay, 
which is being employed extensively in the West, has been used 
for some time in England and on the Continent. It is very light 
and is about equal to screened locomotive cinders. 

The clay used for this purpose should not contain too much 
sand. The material should be thoroughly burned, or it will have 
a tendency to absorb too much water. 

Clean sand will give good drainage, but it is so light that 
it drifts readily. To obviate this it is sometimes covered with a 
layer of broken stone as in India. Windbreaks of bushes are 
used on the Siberian Railways to prevent the drifting of the 
ballast, and on the Egyptian State Railways through the desert 



174 RAILWAY * MAINTENANCE 

the track is placed low enough to overcome this difficulty, the 
top of the ties being level with the surface of the ground. 

Other materials are used locally for ballast, as chert, chats, 
disintegrated granite, shells, etc. Chert is a disintegrated rock 
found in the South. Chats are the tailings from mills in which 
zinc and lead ores are separated from the rocks in which they 
occur. This material is composed of particles about I in. in size. 
Disintegrated granite is used in the Rocky Mountain territory and 
shells, as oyster shells, in the vicinity of the Coast. 

Earth or ^^ mud ^^ ballast is composed of the natural soil 
along the road. The first cost of this material is low, but it is 
very expensive to maintain. Unless of a sandy nature its use is 
practically prohibited except for the lightest traffic, as it is almost 
impossible to keep the track in safe condition during wet 
seasons and when the frost is coming out of the ground. In hot 
weather it cakes badly and when any work is done upon it it 
becomes intolerably dusty. 

67. Sub-Ballast. — It has been found that stone ballast when 
resting directly on the subgrade will break the surface of the 
roadbed and prevent the water, which passes through the ballast 
readily, draining off, with the result that mud pockets are formed 
and the soil works up into the ballast, destroying its efficiency. 
This difficulty is overcome by introducing a layer of ballast of 
small particles between the stone and the grade. Gravel or 
cinders are suitable for that purpose, and while the stone will 
enter this layer of sub-ballast to some extent, no harm is done, 
as the water is not expected to drain off of the surface of the 
sub-ballast, but passes through it to the surface of the roadbed, 
which being protected from the sharp particles of the stone bal- 
last, preserves its original surface. 

Gravel or cinder is not objectionable for first-class track when 
used in this manner, as it is covered with from 6 to 12 ins. of stone, 
which gives the requisite drainage under the ties and prevents 
the dust rising from the finer ballast upon which it rests. 

68. Sections. — The sections shown in Fig. 22 of the Penn- 
sylvania roadway illustrate good practice in the use of stone 
ballast. 



BALLAST 



175 




I 



v^ 



c^-^ 

v.^-^- 






m 
xn 

< 






m 
o 
m 

o 






c3 

O 

a 

o 

O 



CO 

o 






176 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

With gravel ballast a somewhat flatter slope is desirable. 
This is also necessary with cinders^ chats, chert and granulated 
slag, where the slope should be about 3 to 1. 

Fig. 103 shows a composite drawing of the ballast sections of 
various roads with the sections for single and double track 
proposed by the committee on Ballast of the American Railway 
Engineering Assn., indicated in heavy lines.* 

69. Specifications.- — The general requirements of the specifica- 
tions for the different kinds of ballast may be summarized as 
follows : 

Stone ballast should be clean and durable. It should break 
with an angular fracture when crushed and the pieces should 
pass in any position through a 2|-in. ring and should not pass 
through a |-in. ring. 

The best grade of gravel ballast should not contain more 
than 2 per cent, of dust or 40 per cent of sand. When it con- 
tains more than these percentages it should preferably be washed 
or screened. 

Gravel for branch lines may contain as much as 3 per 
cent of dust or 60 per cent of sand before it is necessary to 
screen or wash it. 

Slag ballast should be free from dirt, dust and the product 
from the mill; if not granulated (quenched in water), it should be 
crushed to the same size as stone ballast. 

Stone screenings is a by-product of the crusher and is therefore 
made from the same quality of stone as stone ballast. The 
maximum size should not exceed pieces which will pass through 
a revolving screen having |-inch holes. 

Burnt-clay ballast should be made of gumbo or other suitable 
clay free from sand or silt. The material should be burnt hard 
and thoroughly, and the absorption of water should not exceed 
15 per cent by weight. 

70. Physical Tests. — The physical tests for stone ballast 
recommended by the American Railway Engineering Association 
are as follows: 

* Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol 15, 1914, p. 972. 



BALLAST 



177 



(a) Weight per cubic foot. 

(6) Water absorption in pounds 
per cubic foot. 

(c) Per cent of wear. 

(d) Hardness. 

(e) Toughness. 

(/) Cementing value. 

(g) Compression test. 

The advantage of using approved 
physical tests of stone for ballast is to 
determine the character of the stone 
and its fitness for ballast without the 
expense of opening quarries and using 
the stone before it is known whether it 
will be suitable for ballast or not. 
Without some method of determining 
this by physical tests, railroads will 
undoubtedly be put to considerable 
expense by opening quarries and apply- 
ing stone ballast, which in some cases 
will have to be replaced with better 
ballast from other quarries.* 

In the test for toughness, i.e., the 
ability of the stone to resist fracture 
due to impact, the office of Public 
Roads use the Page impact machine, 
shown in Fig. 104. This machine 
consists essentially of a 2-kilogram 
hammer which is guided by two vertical 
rods. This hammer does not strike 
the specimen to be tested directly, but 




Fig. 104. — Page Impact 
Testing Machine. 



* For the description of the physical tests of stone for ballast as recom- 
mended by the American Railway Engineering Association and full in- 
structions as to how the samples should be obtained and shipped to the 
Government for the test which is made free of charge at the office of Public 
Roads, see Proceedings, Vol. 11, Part 2, pp. 910-914,and Report of the 
Ballast Committee for 1912. 



178 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

when released strikes a plunger made of armor-piercing. steel with 
a spherical end and the blow is delivered through this plunger. 
The test piece rests on an anvil of hard steel. The test consists 
of a 1-centimeter fall of the hammer for the first blow, and an 
increasing fall of 1 centimeter for each succeeding blow until 
failure of the test piece occurs. The number of blows required 
to cause failure is used to represent the toughness. 

Rocks which have a toughness which runs below 13 are called 
low: from 13 to 19, medium: and above 19, high. 

For gravel ballast, the American Railway Engineering Asso- 
ciation recommends that average samples of about 1 cu.ft. each 
should be selected from the pit. To separate the sand and dust 
from the gravel use a No. 10 screen made of No. 24 wire and 
to separate the sand from the dust use a No. 50 screen of No. 31 
wire. The percentage of gravel, sand and dust should be meas- 
ured by volume, as follows: 

Per cent of sand = 



G+S+D 



where aS = Volume of sand; 
G = Volume of gravel ; 
D (^^ Volume of dust. 

71. Cleaning. — Under usual conditions, no ballast, except 
stone or hard slag, should be cleaned. 

For stone ballast the American Railway Engineering Associa- 
tion recommends that the cleaning should be done with ballast 
forks or screens. The shoulder should be cleaned down to sub- 
grade and between the ties to the bottom of the ties. Stone 
ballast should be cleaned in terminals at intervals of one to three 
years, in heavy traffic coal and coke lines at intervals of three 
to five years, and for light traffic lines at intervals of from five 
to eight 3xars. 

Fifteen to 25 per cent of new stone ballast should be applied 
when cleaning. 

Keeping the ballast clean from weeds requires considerable 
time, especially in wet seasons. In recent 3^ears experiments have 



BALLAST 179 

been made for killing weeds by burning or by spraying. The 
apparatus used for burning consists of a flat car carrying a suit- 
able pipe by means of which the flame is directed on the roadway. 
If a spray is employed to destroy the weeds, the spraying com- 
pound is carried in a tank car and distributed automatically 
over the ballast as the car moves along the track. 

Other methods have been tried, as the use of electricity^ on 
the Illinois Central. 

72. Handling and Distributing. — Ballast was formerly un- 
loaded by hand or by means of a plow which was pulled over 
the cars either by the locomotive or an unloading mill. The 
unloading mill consists of a small stationary engine mounted on a 
flat car. The engine is supplied with steam from the locomotive 
and pulls the plow by means of a long steel cable which is wound 
upon drums 'connected to the engine. 

More recently special ballast cars have come into use for this 
service and now the greater part of the ballast is unloaded from 
these. 

Fig. 105 illustrates the Hart convertible car employed for 
this purpose. Fig. A shows the car arranged for use with a 
plow which plows the material off through the side doors and 
Fig. B shows the car ready for center dumping or unloading the 
material in the center of the track. In the latter method the 
ballast is spread by a plow car. Fig. C shows the plow car in 
service. The diagonal shading in Fig. B shows the position of 
the ballast after being spread by the plow car when it is ready 
to be placed under the track by the track forces. 

73. Distribution of Pressure through. — Considerable atten- 
tion has been given to the distribution of pressure through ballast 
to the subgrade with a view to determining the proper depth 
of ballast required under different conditions. 

The following experiments were made in Germany by Schu- 
bert, to determine the distribution of force upon the subgrade.* 

An experimental box, 37 ins. long, 20 ins. high, and 6 ins. 
wide, was filled with a layer of clay 8 ins. high at the bottom, on 

* See Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Assn., Vol, 7, 1906, 
p. 111. 



180 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



top of which was placed a layer of sand 6 ins. high, and then 
a laA^er of gravel 6 ins. high, upon which a tie was laid. This 
tie was tamped with the ordinary tamping pick and then sub- 
jected to a load of 57 lbs. per square inch, or 8200 lbs. per 




B. Center Dumping. 



A. Unloading from Sides. 



i 

i 

■ 


T- ^ 




i 




«if .nil 0t 






ii:--J 








*' J 


^ 




^ ■ , ■ 




. . 1 



C. Plow Car. 
Fig. 105. — Unloading Ballast (Hart Convertible Cars). 



square foot, by which the rail level was depressed. By the 
use of an eccentric the loading was alternately lifted from the 
tie and again returned, thus imitating the process of passing a 
loaded wheel over the track. As soon as the tie had settled 



BALLAST 181 

1.2 ins., which was registered upon an attached shding plate, 
the tie was again raised and tamped. From time to time, photo- 
graphic views and observations as to the stage or condition of 
the experiment were taken by removing the front wall of the 
experimental box. After the eleventh tamping the experiment 
was considered as completed, and the section then showed that a 
short depression (Fig. 106A) measuring about 12 ins. to 14 ins. 
wide, had been formed in the clay, with an upward swelling on 
each side. The pressure transmitted from the tie had accord- 
ingly distributed itself over this small width when the depth 
below the bottom of the tie was 12 ins. 

In a subsequent experiment, broken stone was used in place 
of gravel; otherwise the procedure was the same. From the 
section taken after the fifth tamping (Fig. 1065) a depression 
in the clay extending nearly over the entire width of the experi- 
mental box (27| ins. to 29| ins. wide) was noticeable. The dis- 
tribution of the force was consequently double that of the pre- 
vious experiment. 

Still more favorable appeared this distribution when the 
height of the stone ballast is increased. In doing this, it is 
judicious to retain a thin layer of sand so as to prevent the larger 
pieces of broken stone from entering into the clay. 

As will appear from the section shown in Fig. 106C, a depres- 
sion in the clay was shown not to have taken place, and only a 
few of the broken stones had gone through the sand to the clay. 
In emptying the box only a very unimportant depression was 
noticeable. 

Finally, the behavior of the foundation layer was investi- 
gated, and after the fourth tamping the section shown in Fig. 
106D was taken. The stones of the foundation layer had pene- 
trated the clay rather deeply, and not only those in the center, but 
also stones on the sides, from which we can conclude that the 
force transmitted through the tie had distributed itself nearly over 
the entire width of the box. 

Hence, the most favorable distribution of forces is accomplished 
by the use of ballast of broken stone, with or without a founda- 
tion layer. The latter is, however, not suitable in a yielding sub- 



182 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 







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BALLAST 



183 



grade, inasmuch as the stones penetrate into the grade, and the 
yielding soil will swell into the spaces, thus making the drainage 
ineffective. 

The effect of overloading the subgrade and the unequal dis- 
tribution of the pressure from the ties is very clearly shown in 
Fig. 107. 

Mr. Thomas H. Johnson has made a study of Director Schu- 
bert^s report with a view to deriving a formula which would 




^m^^^^ 




Fig. 107. — Effect of Unequal Distrubition of Tie Pressure on Sub-grade. 
(Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. — Schubert.) 



show the thickness of ballast necessary to produce an equal dis- 
tribution of the axle loads on the surface of the roadbed under- 
neath the ballast.* 

Referring to Fig. 108, the following formulae are suggested by 
Mr. Johnson: 

For gravel x = b^+^d\ 

For stone x = b^+d\ 

* See Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Assn., Vol. 7, 1906, 
p. 104. 



184 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



In the figure the arcs will approximate to parabolas and may 
be considered as such. 

The intensity of pressures is proportionate to the ordinates 
of the curve. 

Areas of parabolic segment = fx?/ ; hence mean ordinate = §2/? 
or mean pressure = f maximum pressure, or maximum pressure 
equal to f mean pressure. 

Pressure at b = 0; hence, to obtain an approximately uniform 
distribution over the surface of roadbed, the tie spacing S must 




l<- X -■- -^ -- X 

Fig. 108. — Distribution of Pressure to Sub-grade. (Johnson.) 



be such that the curves overlap and have a common ordinate, 
y' = \y. This will occur when db = Icb or mo = ^m7i.^ 

We should obviously aim to space the tie so that the area of 
distribution of adjacent ties will overlap and give approximately 
an equal distribution of the axle loads on the surface of the road- 
bed underneath the ballast. 

With a tie spacing of 23 ins. center of ties, by applying Mr. 
Johnson's formulae, we find that it will be necessary to use 45 ins. 
of gravel ballast and 22 ins. of stone ballast under the tie to 
obtain equal distribution of the subgrade. 



Approximate; to be exact, d6=0.29 cb and mo =»0.71 mn. 





BALLAST 




Tie spacing, 


^ = 23ins. = fx. 




For gravel, 


s=i{b'+id'), 




or 


s=w+id'> 




• 


id'=s-w, 




and 


d' = |(,S-f6') = f(23"- 


-|x8")=45iin, 


For stone 


S = W+d'), 




or 


s=w+id', 




and 


d' = i{S-W) = i{2S"- 


-fx8") = 22|in 



185 



The road department of the Pennsylvania Railroad has 
installed an interesting piece of apparatus on the grounds of 
the South Altoona foundry to test the bearing qualities of different 
kinds of roadway and ballast. The particular ballast or sub- 
grade to be tested is placed in three heavy boxes that extend 
across the track and have sufficient depth to serve the purpose. 
The track crosses this on a level and extends out on either side, 
terminating in a short and sharp incline. A four-wheel car on 
this track is loaded with pig metal to obtain any desired weight 
on the wheels. This car is also equipped with electric motors. 
A shed built across the track carries an overhead rail, from which 
a motor current is obtained, through a contact shoe on the car. 

When current is turned on, the car moves out to the end of 
the conductor rail, and here, as the contact is broken, the power 
of the motor is shut off. The car runs on until stopped by the 
adverse grade, and meanwhile a trip reverses the current con- 
nections to the motor. Stopped by the grade, the car runs back 
beneath the current rail, when its motor drives it to the other 
end, where the movement is again reversed. In this way the 
car is made to travel back and forth automatically over the track 
until the desired results are obtained, the number of trips being 
automatically registered upon a counter.* 

♦See Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 13, 1912, pp. 113-265; and 
flailway Age Gazette, June 11, 1909, and July 21, 1911. 



186 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

These tests are the most extensive of the kind ever conducted 
in this country. It was felt that while the data obtained b}^ Direc- 
tor Schubert were very instructive, yet more valuable data could 
be obtained from a series of experiments if made in a manner 
more nearly approaching actual track conditions. 

The track was 109 ft. in length, built of new P. R.R. standard 
85-lb. rail with 7-in. by 9-in. by 8| ft. ties spaced 25^ ins. center 
to center. It being unpracticable to run the car faster than about 
5 miles per hour, at which speed any effect upon the track, 
due to impact alone would be negligible, a weight of 75,000 lbs. 
per axle was chosen for the experimental truck. 

A series of five tests was completed, the first one beginning 
on Sept. 2, 1908, and the last one ending on Aug. 2, 1910. Table 
IX gives general data of the tests and Fig. 109 illustrates some of 
the sections obtained. Water was applied by sprinkling the boxes 
to observe the effect of moisture on the ballast; the amount ap- 
plied in each test is shown in the table by inches of rainfall. 

In test No. 1 the line of demarkation between the bottom of 
the ballast and the roadbed material was not straight. The test 
showed conclusively that a depth of 8 ins. of trap-rock ballast, 
when laid on the usual roadbed material, was not sufficient to 
distribute the weight carried by the ties uniformly over the 
roadbed. 

The results in the third box showed, however, that if 12 ins. 
of permeable material, such as cinder, were used beneath the 
8 ins. of ballast, the distribution of the weight over the roadbed 
material was much better. 

The results of the first test led to the second test to determine 
how a depth of 12 ins., 18 ins. and 24 ins. of trap rock under the 
ties would behave. In test No. 2 the di\dding line between the 
ballast and the loam was quite straight in box No. 3, but in boxes 
Nos. 1 and 2 there existed some depressions in the line especially 
under the rail. 

A study of the sections in test No. 3 showed that the loam 
was more evenly depressed in box No. 3 than in the other boxes 
where stone had been substituted for part of the cinder during 
the test. 



BALLAST 



187 



Test No. 4 showed that the gravel and slag distributed the 
pressure upon the loam with about the same efficiency. 

Test No. 5 was made to determine whether a combination of 
rock and cinder would prove as satisfactory as the rock alone. 



W.O.Tie^ pf^f^ Sfandorcf dBLb.Rail / 






im 



-I6l 

Or/^. Dividing Line 



TrapRock 
_■ ' dallasf 




Seff/emenf direc/'/i^ under Rail 
8" from end of Tie 
Under endof Tie 



South 



1>S Cinder 



Bad 
C/ai^ 



West Rail 



A- FIRST TEST. BOX MO. 3 . 
SECTIONS LOOKIMG THROITGH BOX 
WEST RAIL 



>j^- East Rail 



^ \r__ z_Wlnife Oa/< 5qua_red_T/e_Jx9x8i' 
Trap Rock Ballast 



m 






Original Dividing Line Ballast ScSi^bgrade-:^ ^' ^ 

L oam \ 

< e-o"- >| 

detf/emenf under No. Tie -■ — 

" So. " - 

befr/een Ties 

B- SECOND TEST, BOX liO.Z 
SECTION THROUGH BOX AT RIGHT ANGLES 
TO RAIL 



Fig. 109. — Altoona Tests on Distribution of Pressure through Ballast. 



It was found, however, that the line between the ballast and the 
loam in box No. 3 was not as good as in box No. 3 of Test No. 2. 

The results obtained from these tests are apparently consistent 
with those derived from Johnson's formula. 

A distinct arching effect has been observed in static tests on 



188 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



X 



< 



< 

o 
o 

s 

< 
Q 

m 

< 
o 

P^ 

P^ 
o 

:^ 

CO 



lO 




ii 

a> bi) 


6" cinder re- 
moved and 
6" trap rock 
added 

8" cinder re- 
moved and 
8" trap 
rock added 

10" cinder 
removed 
and 10" trap 
rock added 

93,094 
5i"' 

4^" 
14" 


P4 

m 
1— t 


ii 

S4 


24" cinder 
13" sandy 
loam 

24" cinder 
13" sandy 
loam 

24" cinder 

13" sandv 

loam 

19,210 

21" 
4r 


-•j^ 




ii 

^^co 


8" slag re- 
moved and 
8" trap rock 
added 

12" slag re- 
moved and 
12" trap 
rock added 

12" gravel 
removed 

and 12" trap 
rock added 

40,060 

4i" 
4i" 

6" 


OS 

1— < 


ii 


24" slag 
12" sandy 
loam 

24" slag 
12" sandy 
loam 

24" sandy 
gravel 

12" sandy 
loam 

45,561 

12^' 
13i" 

8f" 
8" 


CO 


PLI 


05 

is 


Removed 8" 
cinder from 
top and re- 
placed with 
trap rock. 

Removed 
12" cinder 
from top 
and r e - 
placed with 
trap rock 

Unchanged 

40,100 

2f" 

2|" 
21" 
7" 


u 
03 
PL. 


si 

1-5 >-3 


24" cinder 
12" loam 

24" cinder 
12" loam 

24" cinder 
12" loam 

45,500 

8^' 
81" 
71" 
8f" 


(N 




12" trap rock 
26" loam 

18" trap rock 
19" loam 

24" trap rock 
14" loam 

49,932 

81" 

9t" 

9i" 

llf 


1-H 


ii 

afl 


8" trap rock 
27" bad clay 

8" trap rock 
27" sandy 
loam 

8" trap rock 
12" cinder 
15" bad clay 

81,600 

lOA" 

lOf" 
98i" 


< 


6 

n 

-1 




Material in 
Box No. 1 

Box No. 2 

Box No. 3 

No. of round 
trips 

Settlement: 
Box No. 1 
Box No. 2 
Box No. 3 

Rainfall 



BALLAST 



189 



the distribution of pressure through gravel; but under dy- 
namic loading where the material is subjected to shocks this 
would seem to be absent, and the greatest intensity of pressure 
occurs immediately under the point of application of load. 

Fig. 110 illustrates the distribution of pressure in dry sand as 
determined by Moyer.* The sudden bends in these curves which 
occur as the eccentricity of the load increases for depths of sand 
less than 12 ins. in Fig. A and 24 ins. in Fig. B appear to indicate 
a certain critical depth for different pressures that would be 



.100 



t 

-73 

4= 



c 
O 

3 






80 



60 



40 



20 



Loads Varied from SO to ZOO lb. 
Applied on A rea 6"xe" 
Weighing Area 6"^ 6" 




Loads Varied from 1000 to . 

Applied on Area 12 'k 12 "/ 

Weighing Area 12 "xlZ " f^ 


54001b. 










. 










'/ 


"K 












24" 


sv^«?- 




m^ 










^ 


f 






'ZO" 



10 



10 5 5 10 15 15 10 5 5 

Eccentricity of Load in Inches. Eccentricity of Load in Inches. 

A B 

Fig. 110. — M oyer's Tests on Distribution of Pressure through Sand 



15 



proper to use in obtaining uniform distribution on the roadbed 
through the sub-ballast. It should be observed that these tests 
were made with dry sand and that probably a very great differ- 
ence in distributing power would be found for different degrees 
of dampness. 

The American Railway Engineering Association recommends 
the following for the proper depth of ballast, f 

From the data available, it is concluded that with ties 7 in. by 9 in. 
by 8| ft., spaced approximately 24 in. to 25.5 in., center to center, a depth 

♦Engineering Record, May 30, 1914, p. 608. 
t Supplement to Manual, 1912, p. 7. 



190 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

of 24 in. of stone ballast is necessary to produce uniform pressure on the 
subgrade, and a combination of a lower layer of gravel or cinder ballast 
(18 in. to 24 in.) and an upper layer of stone ballast (6 in. to 10 in.) approx- 
imately 24 in. deep in the aggregate, with the same spacing of the ties, 
will produce nearly the same results. 

The depth of the ballast refers to the distance from the 
bottom of the tie to the top of the subgrade. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Kinds of 

Report of Committee on Ballasting, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. and 
M. of W. Assn., Vol. 10, Part 1, 1909, pp. 690-700 (contains descriptions 
of gravel-washing plant and of burning clay for ballast). 

Ballast, by G. W. Vaughan, ibid., Vol. 13, 1912, pp. 290-300 (con- 
tains photographs of different kinds of ballast). 

Railway Track and Track Work, E. E. Russell Tratman, 1909, New 
York, pp. 26-31. (Descriptions of different kinds of ballast, p. 520, Table 
IV. gives kinds of ballast used on 59 different roads.) 

Sections 

Ballast Sections, Manual, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, pp. 49, 50. 

Ballast Sections, Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. Vol. 16, 1915, 
pp. 1010-1013. 

Maintenance of Way Standards on American Railways, F. A. Smith, 
1906, New York, pp. 529-541 (gives standard sections on a number of 
different roads). 

Specifications 

Specifications for Stone, Gravel, Cinder and Burnt Clay Ballast, 
Manual, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, pp. 46, 47, and Supplement to 
Manual 1913, p. 7. 

Physical Tests 

Physical Tests of Crushed Stone Ballast used on the Baltimore and 
Ohio Railroad, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Assn., Vol. 7, 
1906, pp. 708-712. 

Results of Government Tests on Stone for Ballast, ihid.j Vol. 13, 
1912, p. 112. 

The Physical Testing of Rock for Road Building, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, Office of Public Roads, Bulletin No. 44, 1912. 



BALLAST 191 



Cleaning 



Cleaning Stone Ballast, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 15, 
1914, pp. 964 and 989. 

Cleaning and Burning Weeds, Railway Track and Track Work, 
E. E. Russell Tratman, 1909, New York, pp. 378-380. 

Distribution of Pressure through 

Lecture delivered by Railroad Director Schubert before the ^^ Verein 
fiir Eisenbahn Kunde,'^ on the Action Under the Tie of a Railroad Track, 
Glaser's Annalen ftir Gewerbe und Bauwesen, May, 1899. 

Discussion of Report on Ballasting by W. C. Cushing, Proceedings, 
Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Assn., Vol. 7, 1906, pp. 102-127 (contains 
record of Director Schubert^s Experiments and Thos. H. Johnson's 
analysis). 

Experiment to Determine the Necessary Depth of Stone Ballast, 
report of the General Manager's Committee, Pennsylvania Railroad, by 
W. C. Cushing, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 13, 1912, pp. 
113-265 (see also Railway Age Gazette, June 11, 1909, and July 21, 1911). 

Gravel as Ballast, by Q, Brauning, Zeitschrift flir Bauwesen, Vol. 
54, 1904, Berlin. 

Gravel as Ballast by C. Brauning, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 
Vol. 13, 1912, pp. 266-289 (contains translation from '' Zeitschrift fur 
Bauwesen'^). 

Distribution of Vertical Soil Pressure, by J. A. Moyer, Engineering 
Record, May 30, 1914, p. 608 (contains record of tests at Pennsylvania 
State College). 



CHAPTER IX 

MAINTAINING TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 

74. Track Laying. — In relaying rail, that is, taking it up from 
main lines and laying it on branches, the rails are frequently 
battered and worn at the ends, and the practice is quite general 
to saw off enough of the end to get rid of the bad metal and then 
redrill the rails for the splice. A rail saw is located at some 
convenient point on the road and as the rail is taken up it is 
shipped to the saw, the ends sawed off and the rail sent to the 
part of the road where it is to be relayed. 

In lajdng rail on an existing line the steel is distributed along- 
side of the track at the ends of the ties b}^ a work train. The 

rails are then laid on the ties, outside of the 
rails in the track, and bolted together in sec- 
tions of about ten rail lengths. Between the 
passage of trains the old rails are thrown out 
and the new section thrown in and the ends 
connected up. As the new section is not, as 
Fig. 111. ^ ^'^1^> ^^ exactly the same length as the old, 

Exi3ansion Shim, a switch point is used for the connection; this 
connection should not, however, be left over- 
night, but a rail should be cut and drilled so a regular connection 
with angle bars may be made. 

At each joint in the rails an opening must be left varying 
from Te" to 3^ in. This is accompUshed by means of ^^ expansion 
shims. '^ Fig. Ill illustrates a cast-iron shim used for this 
purpose. 

Table X gives the temperature expansion for laying rails 
reconnnended by the American Railwa}^ Engineering Association,* 

* Manual, 1911, p. 86, 
192 




TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



193 



TABLE X 

Temperature Expansion for Laying 33 Ft. Rails (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.) 



Temperature 
(taken on rail) 
(Fahrenheit). 

■ 


Opening between 
rails. 


-20° to 0° 

to 25 

25 to 50 

50 to 75 

75 to 100 


A in. 

iin. 

A in. 

iin. 
A in. 



Over 100° the rails should be laid close without bumping. 

The procedure on new track is quite different; here if the work 
is of any magnitude a track-laying machine is generally used. 
This consists of a flat car equipped with beams extending ahead 
of the car upon which a small dummy car containing ties may be 
run and dumped. These ties are spaced by the track-laying gang 
and two rails are dropped in place from the beams ahead of the 
car. These are connected up and spiked to the ties and the 
whole train moves ahead one rail length and the operation is 
repeated. 

Where the country is flat and the line is accessible to teams 
the ties may be distributed on the grade by teams and the rails 
and other track material brought up by train. In this case a 
track-laying machine is not necessary, as the rails can be unloaded 
from the sides of the flat car, which is placed ahead of the 
engine, and carried forward by the men, the train moving ahead 
a rail length at a time as the track is built. 

Where an American ditcher machine is available the work 
of track laying can be facilitated by its use. The arrangement 
of the train should be as shown in Fig. 112. The machine is 
mounted on a flat car which is placed at the head of the material 
cars. 

A car of steel (80 to 100 rails to the car) is placed next 
to the car on which the machine stands, and behind the steel are 
two cars of ties. The locomotive spots the train as the track 
is laid, and brings in additional material. 



194 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



The ties are arranged in piles of 18 or 20, sufficient to lay one 
33-ft. panel of track. A chain is hooked around the ties, which 
are dragged over the tops of the cars, or along the sides of the 
cars on the grade, to where a straight lift can be obtained, then 
swung around and dropped into place on the grade. Two 
men on tie cars keep the ties piled up ready for the machine 
to take away. The tong runner hooks tongs on the rail, and 
passes the chain back to men on the tie cars. The machine 
then swings around, picks up a rail, and slewing around to the 
front, deposits it on the grade. 




Fig. 112. — Laying Track with American Ditcher. 

Spikes, bolts and angle bars are carried on the car with the 
machine. 

With the heavy loads and dense traffic of recent years it has 
been found necessary to use a closer spacing of the ties than was 
formerly employed in order to give the rail as much support as 
possible and obtain a uniform distribution of the load to the 
subgrade. 

While the spacing varies somewhat on different roads, it is 
generally considered good practice to use a tie spacing which 
will support the rail for 45 per cent of its length. This appears 
to be about the minimum spacing which will leave room between 
the ties for the proper use of the tamping tool. 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 195 

In relaying rails it was formerly the universal practice to 
respace the ties at the joints so as to maintain a symmetrical 
bearing. This has been looked upon as very important, and the 
labor of spacing the joint ties constitutes a considerable part 
of the cost of relaying rail. The joints are slotted to receive 
the spikes and prevent the rail moving relatively to these ties. 
Within the last few years several roads, among which are the 
Pennsylvania Lines, Pittsburgh and Lake Erie, and the Chicago, 
Milwaukee and St. Paul, have used more or less extensively 
joints with no slots to spike through and in relaying rail make no 
attempt to space the joint ties. It is claimed a substantial 
saving in maintenance is effected due to not disturbing the bed 
of the tie in addition to the reduced cost when the rail is 
relaid. If it is necessary to prevent the movement of the rail, 
anti-creepers are put on at the quarter or eighth points of the 
rail. 

75. Surfacing. — Unless a general lift of the track is to be made 
the track surfaced should not be lifted out of its bed, but only 
the low places brought up to conform to the higher. 

When not surfacing out of face, as in case of picking up low 
joints or other low places, the general level of the track should 
not be disturbed. Where the rails are out of level, but where 
the difference in elevation is not excessive and is uniform over 
long stretches of track, a difference in elevation between the 
two rails of three-eighths in. may be allowed to continue 
until such time as the track would ordinarily be surfaced out 
of face. 

In tamping broken-stone ballast, it is customary to tamp 
from a point 15 ins. inside of the rail to the end of the tie, 
tamping the end of the tie outside the rail first, starting well 
under the rail. When practicable, a train is allowed to pass 
over the track before tamping inside the rail. The center of the 
tie should not be tamped, but the ballast should be filled in 
between the ties to the top of the tie at the center, and sloped 
from this point to conform to the standard section. 

The same procedure is used for gravel, sand or cinder ballast, 
except that the tie is shovel packed lightly at the center. 



196 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

If the tie is tamped too much at the center, the track becomes 
^^ center bound/' that is, the ties have a tendency toward an un- 
stable bearing on the ballast. 

That this principle has been known for a long time is shown 
by the following statement, made by Huntington over thirty 
years ago.* 

It is customary to tamp the ties their entire length; but it is found 
to be bad practice to tamp as hard midway between the rails as at the ends 
of the ties and on the inner side of the rails. All track newly raised will 
settle more or less, and if the middle of the track is tamped hard it will 
cause it to rock and work out of line, as ballast will wash out from under 
the ends of ties when it remains hard and full in the center. Such track 
will rock from side to side in a very disagreeable manner. 

Fig. 113, showing the form the tie takes under load, is derived 
from an elaborate series of tests on the action of the tie in the 
ballast made by M. Cuenot.f This makes it clear why the tamp- 
ing should be lightly done at the center both from the stand- 
point of obtaining a more stable track and also to avoid unduly 
stressing the tie by causing too great a bending movement at the 
center. 

In stone ballast the tamping is usually done with a tamping 
pick or bar, while in gravel ballast the shovel is more generally 
employed. 

The question of tamping the ballast under the tie is of con- 
siderable importance, and the labor required to keep the ties 
properly tamped constitutes one of the largest single items of 
track maintenance. During the passage of a train the tie is de- 
pressed in the ballast. Most of the depression is elastic, but the 
tie is given a certain amount of permanent depression by every 
train which passes over it. This permanent displacement aug- 
ments in time until the track is no longer in a condition to 

* The Road-Master's Assistant and Section Master's Guide, by W. S. 
Huntington, revised by Chas. Latimer, 1884, The Railroad Gazette, New 
York, p. 47. 

t Deformations of Railroad Tracks, 1907. The Railroad Gazette, New 
York. 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



197 



afford smooth riding of the trains and it is necessary to tamp 
the ballast to restore the good riding quahties of the track. 

Fig. 114 illustrates some of the results of tests on the tracks 
of the Pennsylvania Railroad made by the Government in 
1894 and 1895. 

The depression of rails was measured by means of a sen- 
sitive level bubble, mounted on a rod, carrying at one end a 
screw micrometer, which rested on a stake driven in the road- 
bed 30 ins. from the rail; the other end of the rod rested upon the 
base of the rail. The depression of the track was thus measured 
with reference to the top of the stake used as a bench mark. 




-8.5^'--'- 

Wood Tie 



K- 15. 7S-^-~J5. 75 -->^ ■••■-■-'.-• ••; •.• • . ■ |^._ /5; js".^.. /^ 751'.^' Part Tamped with 
^ rar/- Tamped with lamping Bar J^oad Bed^ Tamping Bar 



W^^^^^m^^^ 



w/'-' ■ 




Spontaneous^ ^^ '5.91 Ca?^e'6fFleKure of the He JhliTrToad ^'^'" Tamping 

Fig. 113. — Cuenot's Tests on Distribution of Tamping Under Tie. 

The depression of the rails examined shows, with the 60- 
Ib. rails, the least depression on the gravel ballast, the order 
of rigidity being gravel, stone and cinder ballast. With the 
70-lb. sections, the order of rigidity is gravel, cinder and stone 
ballast. Under 85-lb. rails, the stone ballast gave greater rigidity 
than the gravel. No test for depression was made with cinder 
ballast under 85-lb. rails, and only stone ballast was used under 
100-lb. rails. 

Table XI states the mean depression of the driving wheels, 
and also the mean depression of all the other wheels of the 
locomotive in each experiment. There is in the table a column 



198 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



of differences which states the excess of depression of the drivers 
over that of the other wheels. The column of differences is 



^- 6'7"--^~- 8'5f 
\ |< t-//'9 



(h I €) 




i ' J i 
i ! I i 

@ © ® @ 



39,750 lbs. 43,500 lbs. 43,800 lbs. 



Tender 70,000 lbs. 



Locomotive No. 809 Class PK. 
Depression in Ballast. 
60-Pound Rail. 




7///////////////////////// 
Cinder Ballast 




Q Trackman's 
Surface 



-.2' 



Trackman's 



''^^^lilJJJjmimi^^^^d^^ Surface 




r. Trackman's 
^ Surface 



Depression in Ballast. 
70-Pound Rail. 




Q Trackman's 
Surface 



Q Trackman's 
Surface 



2" 

Q Trackman's 
Surface 



Fig. 114. — Depression of Ballast, Government Rail Tests. 



useful in showing the additional depression of the rails under 
the weights of the driving wheels after they have been loaded 
by the other wheels. 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



199 



Under the 60- and 70-lb. sections, the gravel ballast gave the 
greatest rigidity under the drivers, as well as under the other 
wheels, and in the column of differences the excess of depres- 
sion was least for this kind of ballast. 

The total depression with 85-lb. rails was less for the stone 
than for the gravel ballast, although the excess of depression 
under the drivers was practically the same in the two cases. 

The depression of the rails on frozen gravel ballast, in which 
there was no visible movement of the ties, would seem to repre- 
sent about the attainable limit of rigidity in track on wooden 
ties. 



TABLE XI 

Depression of Rails — Mean Depression under Driving Wheels and 
Mean Depression under Pilot and Tender Wheels 

GOVERNMENT RAIL TESTS 

(House Documents, Vol. 46, 54th Congress, 1st Session, 1895-96. No. 54, Tests 

of Metals.) 



Rail 
Weight 
per Yd. 



(Pounds) 
60 
60 
60 
70 
70 
70 
85 
85 
100 
95 



Ballast. 



Cinder. 
Gravel. 
Stone. . 
Cinder. 
Gravel. 
Stone. . 
Gravel. 
Stone. . 
Stone. . 
Gravel, frozen, rail 
No. 1 



Locomotive. 



Passenger 
Passenger 
Passenger 
Passenger 
Passenger 
Passenger 
Passenger 
Passenger 
Passenger 



No. 809. 
No. 809. 
No. 809. 
No. 809. 
No. 809. 
No. 809. 
No. 809. 
No. 809. 
No. 809. 



Passenger No. 209. 



Drivers. 


Pilot 

and 

Tender. 


Inch 


Inch 


.229 


.154 


.073 


.042 


.162 


.122 


.230 


.157 


.138 


.089 


.277 


.207 


.233 


.184 


.144 


.097 


.168 


.116 


.139 


.103 



Differ- 
ence. 



Inch 

.075 
.031 

.040 
.073 
.049 
.070 
.049 
.047 
.052 

.036 



For weights of engine 809, see Fig. 114. 

Engine 209 had a total weight of 199,700 lbs., as follows; 

Engine pilot 40,700 lbs. 

Drivers 75,000 lbs. 

Tender 84,000 lbs. 



200 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

A very critical examination led to the conclusion that each 
passage of a locomotive left the rail in a slightly different state 
than it before occupied, and that some sluggishness of recovery 
in the ballast had an influence on these minute displacements. 

Dr. P. H. Dudley gives from 0.2 in. to 0.4 in. as the amount 
the general running surface of the rail is below the trackmen's 
surface. Director Schubert states that a wooden tie is depressed 
from 0.3 in. to 0.4 in. before it reaches a solid bearing. M, 
Coiiard observed that the maximum depression of the tie was 
about 0.12, and states that the amount of depression is not pro- 
portional to the load. 

M. Cuenot's tests showed that a depression is left under 
the tie of about 0.04 in. and the loaded tie is depressed about 
0.12 in. 

The relation of the bearing power of the tie to the amount 
it is depressed in the ballast is not thoroughly understood. 

Cuenot states that:* 

The German engineers Weber, Winckler, and Zimmermann have 
advanced the theory that the pressure, P, of the ballast per unit of sur- 
face of the cross-tie which it supports is, at each point, in direct ratio 
with the sinking, Y, of the latter; or F = CY, when C is a coefficient de- 
pending upon the character of the ballast. The researches of these 
engineers may be summed up as follows: 

(a) The results of experiments are stated to agree quite closely with 
the supposition that the pressure on the unit of surface is in direct pro- 
portion with the measure of the sinking. 

(6) With a subsoil supposed to be good, the magnitude of the coeffi- 
cient of ballast has been found: for gravel ballast (without metaled bed) 
C=3; for gravel ballast (with metaled bed) (7 = 8; for ballast of small 
stones and scorse C =5.1 

(c) The sinking observed under a load in motion, at speeds varying 
from 40 to 60 kilometers (24.85 to 37.28 miles) per hour, was not much 
greater than the sinking observed under the same load in a state of repose. 

It appears that under the tie at the rail a depression in 
the ballast is formed, and that even under a comparatively 

* Deformations of Railroad Tracks, 1907. The Railroad Gazette, New 
York. 

t P ia kilograms per square centimeter; Y in centimeters. 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



201 



light pressure the tie deflects to the depth of this depression. 
This would seem to represent most of the elastic depression, and 
indicate that there is a sort of spontaneous tamping of the bal- 
last by the tie near the rail bearing which eventually results in 
the permanent displacement of the ballast, and consequent rough 
riding of the track. 



Fence 55' high "k. 



Post 5 "round-.^ ^ "Pitch -^ , 

-V Posts "roun d-~^ ^:^ 




';;, -dp'o" - - -B- 

— -■^■Intermediate Posts 8 'long 

not less than 3 'in Ground. Corner or End Post 

tob'enot less than 4 ' \ 

in Ground' 

Fig. 115. — Woven Wire Right of Way Fence. (Standard recommended by 
the New York Central Lines Maint. of Way Committee.) 







d'O"- 



FiG. 116. — Wing Fence and Apron. (Standard recommended by the New 
York Central Lines Maint. of Way Committee.) 



76. Right-of-way Fences. — The general arrangement of the 
woven wire right-of-way fence is shown on the plan recommended 
by the New York Central Lines Maintenance of Way Com- 
mittee given in Fig. 115. The wing fence shown on the plan 
in Fig. 116 is used at highway crossings in connection with 
the cattle guards which will be described later. 



202 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

The right-of-way fence shown consists of eleven longitudinal 
steel wires; the top and bottom wires are No. 7 gauge and the 
intermediate and stay wires are No. 9 gauge. ]Many engineers 
prefer to use the same size wire for all the line wires and the stays 
as they think that the fence can then be stretched more uni- 
formly without danger of exceeding the strength of the smaller 
Une wires. The majority of railway specifications at the present 
time call for all No. 9 stay and Une wires, although foiTuerh' No. 
9 line and No. 11 stay or No. 9 top and bottom with No. 11 
fillers and stay wires was quite the general practice. 

The wires should have an elastic limit of at least 1500 lbs. 
for the No. 9 gauge and 2000 lbs. for the No. 7 gauge wire, with 
an ultimate strength of 1800 lbs. and 2500 lbs. respectively. 

About 80 per cent of all the fence wire is made by the acid 
Bessemer process. The Pittsburgh Steel Company's fence is, 
however, made of open-hearth steel, which, according to the 
manufacturers, has the following composition: 

Per cent 

Carbon 0.08 to 0.10 

Phosphorus 0.02 to 0.04 

Sulphur 0.03 to 0.04 

Silicon 0.20 

Manganese 0.40 

The elastic limit is about 43,000 lbs. per square inch with an 
ultimate strength of from 72,000 to 75,000 lbs. per square inch, 
the high strength for this chemical composition being due to the 
wire dra^-ing of the steel during manufacture, which adds 7000 
to 8000 lbs. to the tensile strength. This fence has electrically 
welded joints, which on account of the wire saved at the joints 
makes it cost somewhat less than the fence where the intersec- 
tions of the longitudinal and stay wires are not welded. 

In specif\dng wire for fence the phosphorus should not exceed 
.08 per cent. It is desirable probably to keep the manganese 
low, as the tests at the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh appeared 
to show that if the manganese was kept below .50 per cent a 
more rust-resisting fence was had than in the case of higher 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 203 

manganese. The carbon rarely runs above .12 per cent and the 
tensile strength is obtained, as previously explained, by wire 
drawing. 

Right-of-way fence is nearly always purchased already woven, 
but where the roughness of the ground renders impracticable 
the proper stretching or economical erection of the woven-wire 
fence, the fence is erected in the field. 

The wire of the right-of-way fence is generally protected 
from corrosion by being galvanized. 

Experiments have been made with Sherardizing the wire. 

The Sherardizing process consists of the amalgamation of 
oxide of zinc with iron at a certain temperature, which results 
in a protective alloy surrounding the wire instead of the coat- 
ing on the galvanized wire. Sherardizing seems to give a very 
desirable product, but it is quite expensive as compared to the 
hot galvanizing process. The ordinary process of galvanizing 
is to dip the fence before weaving. When the fence is galvanized 
after weaving a more rust-resisting fence seems to be the result. 

The best material for wooden fence posts is probably locust, 
on account of the long life of this timber. Satisfactory fence 
posts are, however, each year more difficult to secure. Sub- 
stitutes, such as reinforced concrete and iron, are quite expen- 
sive and the use of cheaper woods treated to prevent decay is 
beginning to attract attention.* 

The more expensive kinds of wood, such as locust, white 
oak and cedar, which have long been used for posts, are now too 
scarce and too much in demand for other uses to allow of their 
meeting the demand for posts. Fortunately most of the so- 
called '^ inferior ^^ woods are well adapted to preservative treat- 
ment. This is especially true of the cottonwoods, aspens, 
willows, sycamore, low-grade pines and oaks and some of the 
gums. When properly treated these woods will outlast the 
best grades of untreated timber, and are therefore cheaper and 
more satisfactory. 

It is well known that wood decays first where it comes in con- 

* See discussion of fence posts in Forest Service, Circular No. 117, from 
which the following data relative to wooden posts have been taken. 



204 RAILWAY IMAINTENANCE 

tact T\dth the ground. This is because the fungi, which cause 
decay, find there the conditions most favorable for their growth. 
Protection is, therefore, most needed at this point. When wood 
is fully exposed to the air, as in the top of posts, the moisture 
is rapidl}^ evaporated and deca}^ is ver^^ slow. 

A number of more or less crude methods have been tried for 
prolonging the hfe of fence posts. They have brought out cer- 
tain points which may prove of value if more efficient treatment 
cannot be midertaken. Chief of these are the following: 

A seasoned post is better than a green post; hence posts 
should be as dry as possible before being set. 

Setting a post small end down does not check its decay. 

B}^ piling stones around the base of the post or setting it in 
masomy or concrete, vegetation is kept awa}', better drainage 
is secured, and the post is kept drier. The slight gain thus 
secured does not, however, justify the cost. 

Charring the butt of the post, if properly done, gives good 
results. Onh^ dry posts should be charred, and the charred 
surface should extend at least 6 ins. above the ground line. 

If the butt of a post is painted with or plunged into a hot 
solution of carbolineum or creosote very good results can be 
obtained. Next to a regular treatment, this method is doubt- 
less the best. 

Apart from the question of deca}^, mam^ posts in railway 
fences are destro^^ed by ground fires. This reason is an important 
consideration in comparing the concrete wdth the treated wood 
post for railway purposes. 

Concrete makes a practical, durable and economical fence 
post. The posts should be 8 ft. long and preferably of the same 
cross-section, and spaced the same distance apart as is usual 
for wood posts. The poured posts appear to have considerably 
greater strength than those in which the mixture is tamped. To 
obtain the best results posts should be allowed to cure for 
about two months before being used. 

The proper placing of the reinforcement is one of the greatest 
problems in successful post manufacture. Table XII shows the 
amount of reinforcing metal required to develop the compressive 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



205 



strength of the concrete. The reinforcement should be placed 
in the corners of square or rectangular posts and from | to | 
in. in from either side. 

TABLE XII 

Reinforcement in Concrete Fence Posts 

(The Farm Cement News) 



Dimensions. 


Volume 

of 

Post 

in 
Cu.ft. 


Weight 

of 
Post 

in 
Pounds. 


Amount 

of 

Reinforcing 


Length 


Top 


Bottom 


Metal 
Required. 


6' 6" 


3''X3'' 


5''X5'' 


.72 


100.8 


Four 


7 


3 X3 


5 X5 


.78 


109.2 


1// 


7 6 


3 X3 


5 X5 


.83 


116.6 


Round 


8 


3 X3 . 


5 X5 


.89 


124.6 


Rods 


6 6 


4 X4 


5 X5 


.91 


127.4 


Four 


7 


4 X4 


5 X5 


.98 


137.2 


A" 


7 6 


4 X4 


5 X5 


1.05 


147.0 


Round 


8 


4 X4 


5 X5 


1.12 


156.8 


Rods 


6 6 


5 X5 


6 X6 


1.36 


191.1 


Four 


7 


5 X5 


6 X6 


1.47 


205.8 


f" 


7 6 


5 X5 


6 X6 


1.57 


220.5 


Round 


8 


5 X5 


6 X6 


1.68 


235.2 


Rods 



Fig. 117 shows an English fence used for railway purposes.* 
The straining post shown is suitable for the commencement or 
end of a line of fencing. Wires of from i^ to 3^ in. in diameter 
are used to reinforce these posts, four of the larger size being 
used for the straining and main posts and the smaller size for the 
" prick '^ posts, bound together at intervals with wires of about 
I in. in diameter. 

Cattle guards are placed at all road crossings to prevent cattle 
getting on the right of way. The earliest form of cattle guard 
was the old pit guard, which was a positive bar to the cattle. 
The greatest difficulty with this guard was due to the fact that 

* Reinforced Concrete Railway Structures, J. D. W. Ball, 1914. D. Van 
Nostrand Co., New York, p. 195. 



206 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



leaves and other rubbish would collect in the pit and cause fires 
which would endanger the track over the pit. Moreover, the 
the guard may hold fast on the track a frightened animal with 
broken or entangled legs. A modified type of pit guard is shown 
in Fig. 118A, consisting essentially of deep cross-ties so spaced 
in proportion to their depth as to afford no knee room for an 
animal in taking a step. 

The guards used at the present time generally consist of 
surface guards of slats of wood, tile or metal laid on edge and 



^ 



.Si'^xSf 



S^ 



I 



:i^_ 



3 Diam. 
Core 



Straining Posts, 

\ (about 100 yds. apart) 

1 Section 4 "x 4" 



.4x2^ 



-^--~ 9'0' 




'5 Diam. 
Core 



o 



> i ^ — "--^ /" « 



L.-i:j_i4j Base 20 x20"x3 "thick. 
Fig. 117.— Reinforced Concrete Fence Posts."l(Ball.) 



which the cattle find more or less difficulty in passing over. 
(See Fig. 1185.) None of the guards present the same positive 
bar to the passage of stock as the old pit guard. 

77. Snow and Sand Fences and Snow Sheds.— Snow fences 
are very often built in portable sections from 12 to 16 ft. long 
and placed in the fields adjacent to the track on the approach 
of winter and removed in the spring to permit the ground to 
be cultivated. Tree planting is also sometimes done to protect 
the track, as on the Great Northern Railway in eastern Montana, 
North Dakota and Minnesota. Where there is much drifting 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



207 



of sand, a light fence of lath and wire may be used with good 
results. 

The American Railway Engineering Association recommends 
the following in reference to snow fences and sheds i"^ 

The character of the snow fence and its location for the protection 
of a given point depends largely upon local conditions, some of which can 




•Foundation Blocking 

liffea Dy use 
of Ballast 



Sometimes Omilfed byilse 




5pacer Blocks, k 

4"x/2" 



— lOO- 
Plan. 




Side Elevation 

A. Modified Type of Pit Guard. 
Fig. 118.— Cattle Guards. (Am. Ry. B. & B. Assn.) 



only be determined by experiment, and for this purpose portable snow 
fence is recommended. 

Where local conditions permit, a permanent snow fence located on 
the right-of-way line is most economical. 

Where permanent wooden fences are used, the boards should be 
laid close, where the right of way is 50 ft. or less from the center of the 
track; for greater distances, space should be provided between th^ 

♦Manual, 1911, p. 211, 



208 



RAILWAY IMAIXTENANCE 



boards, and at 100 ft. distance, 50 per cent, of the fence should be open 
space. 

The height of permanent board fence depends upon the probable 
amount of snow. The maximum height, however, should be 10 ft. 





B. Types of Surface Guards. 
Fig. 118.— Cattle Guards. (Am. Ry. B. & B. Assn.) 



Snow sheds are expensive to construct and expensive to 
maintain, and the railway should be so located, if possible, as to 
make their construction unnecessary. Their use should be con- 
fined to localities which require protection from mountain snow- 
slides, and they should be constructed of permanent material. 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 209 

Keeping the switches and interlocking apparatus free from 
snow is a large item of expense, on roads located in northern 
climates, when done with brooms and shovels. The most effi- 
cient method of removing snow and ice from the switches in 
large yards and at terminals is by the use of a burner which melts 
the snow. However, when there is a heavy fall it is necessary 
to remove at least a part of the snow with shovels. 

Light falls of snow may be cleared from the track by the use 
of flangers. These are suitable only when the depth is less than 
6 ins. over the top of the rail, and in those parts of the country 
exposed to heavy falls of snow, plows are necessary to keep the 
lines open for traffic. 

Push or wedge plows may be used up to 5 or 6 ft., but in 
heavy or long drifts and in hard-packed, icy snow, it is necessary 
to use the rotary. 

This plow, shown in Fig. 119, consists of a boiler and engine 
for operating the cutting wheel. The wheel is composed of ten 
hollow cone-shaped scoops, the surfaces of which are perfectly 
smooth so that it is impossible for the snow to stick in any way. 
The plow is pushed ahead of a powerful engine, and enters the 
snow bank at a speed of 3 or 4 miles per hour. 

The wheel before entering the bank is revolving about 150 
revolutions per minute and when about 5 ft. from the bank the 
speed of the wheel is increased. 

On the Northern Pacific the rotary plow in raising the great 
blockade during the winter of 1887-1888 successfully removed 
the snow in drifts which were in some cases three or four times 
the height of the plow. 

78. Crossings. — Crossings in unpaved streets and highways 
are made of plank. A flangeway is generally provided by placing 
a rail on its side so that the head of the rail comes next to the 
web of the running rail, and the flange forms a support for the 
edge of the crossing plank. Where much travel passes over the 
crossing it should be full planked between the rails, but in unim- 
portant crossings single planks may be used next the rails and 
the space between the planks filled with gravel, crushed stone 
or screenings. 



210 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



For important crossings on paved streets with heavy traffic, 
the Committee on Signs, Fences and Crossings of the American 
Railway Engineering Association recommends the following:* 






-j^^U. 


A- 






^BT 


4 


^i^H 


■ 



A. American Locomotive Co. Plow. 



B. Plow without Housing. 




C. Rotary at Work on a Heavy Grade in Deep Snow. 
Fig. 119. — Rotary Snow Plow. 



(1) Treated ties should be used, laid on a bed of crushed rock, 
gravel or other suitable material, not less than 8 in. in depth, placed in 
about 3-in. layers, each to be thoroughly rammed to compact it. 

* Proceedings, Vol. 16, 1915, p. 443. 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 211 

(2) Vitrified tile drains not less than 6 in. in diameter, with open 
joints, leading to nearest point from which efficient drainage may be 
obtained, or with sufficient outlets to reach sewers or drainage basins, 
should be laid on either side of and between tracks, parallel with ballast 
line and outside of ties. 

(3) One hundred and forty-one lb., 9-in. depth girder rail, or similar 
section, with suitable tie-plates and screw-spikes, should be used. Tracks 
should be filled in with crushed rock, gravel or other suitable material, 
allowing for 2-in. cushion of sand under finished pavement. 

(4) Ballast should be thoroughly rammed as it is installed to prevent 
settlement of paving foundations. Two inches of good sharp sand should 
be placed on top of ballast. 

(5) Paving must conform to municipal requirements, granite or 
trap rock blocks preferred. Hot tar and gravel should be poured into 
the joints as a binder. 

The protection of crossings with considerable traffic is an 
important matter. In most large cities programs are being 
carried out for the elimination of all street crossings at grade. 
In small towns, however, there are many crossings where on 
account of the expense involved this is not practicable, and such 
crossings are protected by a w^atchman, and, if much traveled, 
by crossing gates operated by a watchman, or in some cases from 
a tower controlling two or more gates. 

For the protection of highway-road crossings, bells operated 
by a track circuit are used in addition to the regular crossing sign. 

Fig. 120 shows lever gates operated by hand from a tower. 
The use of mechanical gates requires a man for each gate and 
led to the introduction of pneumatic and, later, electrical 
gates. (See Fig. 120.) The pneumatic gates are made both 
of the cylinder and the diaphragm types. The electrical gate 
can be operated with much less effort than the pneumatic 
gate and a greater number can be controlled by one man. The 
number controlled from one tower should, however, be limited 
on account of the danger of striking passing teams when closing 
the gate. 

79. Signs.^ — Crossing-signs are regulated by the law, which 
varies radically in different States. The following cases illus- 
trate this: 



212 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 





Double-Cylinder Pneumatic Gate, 
Two and Four Post. 



"T^ 



ti^a^ffim^mmTa^'T^^m^ 



Electric Gate, Two and Four Post. 



Four- Post Lever Gate 
Fig. 120. — Crossing Gates. (Buda.) 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



213 



Illinois. — Boards, supported by posts or otherwise, elevated 
so as not to obstruct travel. Letters, not less than 9 ins. Words, 
Railroad Crossing, or Look Out for the Cars. 

Michigan. — Boards, on posts high enough to prevent ob- 
struction of travel. Letters, at least 12 ins. Words, Railroad 
Crossing. 

In Pennsylvania there is no ruling by the Railroad Com- 
mission, but, following decisions of the courts that it is con- 



This 5ign Used 



New Jersey and 
New YorA. 




Jet Screws 



Crossing Signs, Pennsylvania Railroad. 



tributory negligence on the part of the travelers not to stop, look, 
and hsten, many roads have adopted signs with the words, '^ Stop, 
Look and Listen/' 

The Pennsylvania Railroad has two standard road-crossing 
signs, one for use in the States of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary- 
land and Virginia and the District of Columbia, which has the 
words, ^^ Railroad Crossing, Stop, Look and Listen.'' The 
sign is made of cast iron and the letters and border are raised 



214 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

i of an inch. The sign is supported on a 3-in. wrought-iron pipe. 
Two signs are erected at each crossing, one on each side of the 
railroad, and when so located that the sign cannot be seen at a 
distance of 150 ft. from the crossing, an additional sign must be 
erected at that distance from the crossing. 

The other standard sign is for use in the States of New Jersey 
and New York. This sign has the words, '^ Railroad Crossing, 
Look Out for the Locomotive. ^^ When two railroads are prac- 
tically parallel and within 400 ft. of each other, a sign marked 
^^ Two Crossings ^^ must be attached. 
These signs are illustrated in Fig. 121. 

The other signs used on a railway may be divided into the 
classes given below. These are generally made of wood, iron, or 
concrete of simple design and containing appropriate words or 
letters indicating their use. 
Danger Signs : 

Overhead caution signs; 

Tunnel caution signs; 

Drawbridge signs. 
Operating Signs: 

Slow signs; 

Stop signs; 

Water station and trough signs; 

Whistle signs; 

Yard limit signs; 

Snow-plow markers. 
Roadway Signs : 

Boundary signs; 

Mile posts; 

Monuments; 

Section signs; 

Subdivision signs. 
80. Roadway Small Tools. — Figs. 122 and 123 illustrate tools 
used in track work. Referring to Fig. 122 the claw bar is used 
to pull spikes when the rail or ties are changed. The lining bar 
is used for shifting the track, and the tamping bar to tamp the 
ballast under the tie; this tool is generally used in stone ballast. 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



215 



^^ \ i 



Weight: 30 lb. 




[' ? a 



Claw Bar. 



Lining Bar, Wedge Point. 



7 



J) Q L 



S^ ^ 



30S 



yi/elghf: 10 lbs. 



Weight: 15 lbs. 



3 O t 



^^ 



:d c 



Standard Track Gage, Non- Insulated. 



Tamping Bar. 



Weights 

I5lb5. 





Weight: 
5lb5. 



Tie Tongs. 



Railroad Adze. 



Weight 



ISIbs. 



Rail Tongs. 



^H 



Weight. 5 lbs 



' r 1^1 IJ I I I ■ ^ H/^ r- — - 



Weight- 8 lbs. 



Track Chisel 



Tamping Pick. 



^ 



Weight'. 
lOlby 



r^T 



Track Wrench, 
Single End. 



Spike Maul 

Penna. Pattern. 



Fig. 122.— Track Tools. (Hubbard.) 



216 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

The track chisel is used to cut the rail; a line is cut completely 
around the section and the rail is then raised and allowed to fall 
on some solid object and is broken by the impact at the place 
where cut. The track gauge is used to measure the gauge of the 
track; on curves, where the gauge is widened, shims may be 
inserted between the rail head and the lug on the gauge to pro- 
vide for the increase in gauge. The track wrench is usually 
33 ins. long, as a greater leverage than this will stretch the 
ordinary track bolt. The spike maul is used for driving cut 
spikes and the adze to adze the surface of hewn ties to obtain 
a level bearing for the rail. The tamping pick is used to tamp 
the ballast under the tie. The pick seems to be more generally 
employed for this purpose than the bar shown in the same figure. 

In Fig. 123, A and B illustrate level boards to measure the 
relative heights of the rails. C shows a track drill operated by 
a ratchet, a drill mounted in a frame in which the bit is driven 
by means of a chain operating over a hand-turned sprocket wheel; 
or a gear is frequently employed, as the holes may be drilled faster 
than with a ratchet. The rails are drilled at the mill, but when 
necessary to cut them on the ground, as in putting in a switch, 
the holes for the joint bolts must be drilled by the section men. 
£' is a rail bender. It is not necessary to curve the rails on ordi- 
nary curves with this machine, but it is employed for bending the 
stock rail at switches. A track jack is shown in D. These are 
generally of about 10 tons capacity for ordinary section work 
and are used to hft the track when ballasting. The jack is 
placed between the ties on the outside of the rail with the step 
under the rail; the rail is then lifted and held while the ballast is 
tamped under the adjacent ties. 

Table XIII gives lists of tools with which the section should be 
supplied. In addition to the tools kept at each section, the road- 
master has general tools in stock, such as wheelbarrows, rail 
benders, cross-cut saws, wire stretchers, post-hole diggers, etc., 
which may be shipped to sections where special work is being 
done. 

81. Section Work. — The maintenance of the track is under the 
immediate charge of section foremen. These are experienced 



1 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



217 




o 
> 



o 
o 



CO 






218 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



TABLE XIII 

Lists of Tools for Different Size Sections 



Kind of Tool. 



Adzes, with handles. . . . 

Axes, with handles 

Ballast forks 

Brace and bits 

Brooms 

Bars, tamping 

Bars, lining 

Bars, claw 

Cars, hand . 

Cars, push 

Chisels, track 

Drills 

Drill bits 

Files 

Flags, red 

Flags, green 

Flags, white 

Flag staffs 

Flag hangers 

Gauges, track 

Gauges, center 

Grindstones 

Hatchets, with handles 

Level boards 

Lines for ditching .... 

Lines, tape 

Lanterns, red 

Lanterns, green 

Lanterns, white 

Mauls, wooden 

Oil cans 

Oilers . 

Picks, clay 

Picks, tamping 

Punch 

Padlock and chain. . . . 



For Gang Composed of 



Foreman and 


Foreman and 


Foreman and 


Five Men. 


Three Men. 


Two Men. 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


1 


6 


4 


2 


6 


4 


2 


3 


3 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


9 


9 


6 


1 


1 


1 


3 


3 


3 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


6 


6 


6 


4 


4 


4 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


6 


4 


3 


6 


4 


3 


1 


1 


1 


3 


3 


3 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



219 



TABLE XllI— Continued, 



Kind of Tool. 



Rail tongs 

Saws, hand 

Scuff ers 

Switch locks 

Scythes and Snaths. . . 
Sledges, with handles . 

Spike mauls 

Shovels, track 

Shovels, snow 

Spike puller 

Tie plate gauge 

Torpedoes 

Track jacks 

Water pail and dipper. 

Whetstones 

Wrenches, track 

Wrenches, monkey . . . 



For Gang Composed of 



Foreman and 
Five Men. 



2 
1 
6 
2 
6 
1 
4 
6 
6 
1 
1 
50 
2 
1 
2 
3 
1 



Foreman and 
Three Men. 



2 
1 
4 
2 
4 
1 
3 
4 
4 
1 
1 
50 
1 
1 
2 
3 
1 



Foreman and 
Two Men. 



2 
1 
3 
2 
3 
1 
2 
3 
3 
1 
1 
50 
1 
1 
2 
3 
1 



Note. — Each tool house will keep one extra handle for all tools. 



trackmen having under them a small force of laborers. The length 
of a section, or the track under each foreman, is in the neighbor- 
hood of 3 or 4 miles of line, but may be considerably larger 
on lines where the traffic is light. As each part of the road varies 
in its character, the question of the force to allow each foreman is 
a matter which requires considerable study on the part of the 
officer in charge of the maintenance of the road. 

All of the items given below must be considered in pro- 
portioning the proper force for any section: 



Tonnage; 
Speed; 
Curvature; 
Subgrade; 



Drainage ; 
Weight of rail; 
Kind of ballast; 
Interlocking plants. 



220 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

Evidently the maximum speed over the track would mean 
very little unless the number of trains moved at this speed were 
given. The effect of the tonnage passing over the track undoubt- 
edly is a considerable factor in track maintenance; nevertheless, 
it is so intimately connected with the question of speed, curvature, 
and character of subgrade, that it is difficult to consider it with- 
out reference to the latter. 

Table XIV shows the items which enter into the work of 
maintaining a section and the relative values of each under 
average conditions. 

The purpose of such tables is to enable the officer in charge 
of track maintenance to proportion his force intelligently, and 
while it is desirable to enter into considerable detail in regard 
to the different parts of the track as switches, insulated joints, 
etc., it would appear that the more intangible elements, such as 
tonnage, speed or curvature could be covered more satisfactorily 
by an arbitrary factor selected by the officer in charge. 

The value of these characteristic tables lies in the fact that 
information is given in detail, but sight must not be lost of the 
fact that there are so many conditions affecting the maintenance 
of any piece of track that no rule can be successfully put into 
practice for the proper proportioning of track forces which is 
not sufficiently elastic to permit of the intelligent consideration 
of the section as a whole. 

In other words, all of the tangible elements of the track can 
be scheduled as shown by Table XIV, and appropriate values 
given to each item. The number of units on a section can be 
added up and the force required to operate the section under 
normal conditions arrived at with a considerable degree of pre- 
cision. This equivalent value of the labor required to maintain 
the section should then be multiplied by some factor which would 
take into account all of the general conditions of the hue. 

The question of obtaining efficient foremen is growing to be 
a very serious matter. These men should be promoted from the 
track laborers, but with the class of labor now obtainable this 
is becoming more and more difficult. The problem is being met 
in many ways, one of which is to increase the force under each 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



221 



foreman, thus reducing the number of foremen. The use of 
motor section cars is an aid to this plan and these are now being 
employed by some roads quite extensively. Fig. 124 illustrates 
a gasoline section motor car. These cars are sometimes con- 
structed so the engine can be made to drive tools for drilling rails, 
boring the holes for screw spikes and furnishing power for other j 
miscellaneous uses. ' 

TABLE XIV 

Value of Different Force Units Expressed in Eqihvalent Miles 

OF Single Main Track 



Summer, 

Apr. 1 to 

Oct. 31. 



Winter 
Nov. 1 to 
Mar. 31. 



Tracks, miles: 

Main track 

Second main track 

Additional main tracks, each 

Passing tracks 

Yard tracks 

Industrial tracks and others 

Turnouts 

Main line and running tracks 

Yard and passing tracks 

Industrial tracks 

Crossings at grade, per track 

Railroad, main Une 

Railroad, sidings or yards 

City streets, main line 

City streets, sidings 

Village or highway, main line 

Village or highway, sidings 

Ditches, miles 

Insulated joints: 

Main or running tracks 

Side or passing tracks 

Switch and signal lamps maintained by sec- 
tion force 

Derails maintained by section force 

Station platform, maintained by track force, 

1000 ft.. . 



.00 
.85 
.70 
.50 
.50 
.30 

.07 
.05 
.03 

.03 
.02 
.05 
.03 
.02 
.01 
.50 

.015 
.01 

.02 
.02 

.50 



.70 
.40 
.35 
.25 
.25 
.15 

.07 
.07 
.05 

.03 
.02 
.05 
.03 

.02 
.01 
.10 

.01 
.C075 

.02 
.02 

1.00 



222 



RAILWAY IVIAINTENANCE 



Other labor-saving apparatus is coming into use, as the pneu- 
matic tie tamper/ operated by compressed air, small cranes for 
handling rails on a section, etc. 

In some cases contract work has been resorted to, as in putting 
new ballast or ties, with excellent results, and it may be that this 
method or a modification of it by which the men are paid by 
piece work will be the final solution of the problem. 




Fig. 124. — Gasoline Section Motor Car. (Buda.) 



In a report on contracting maintenance work by a committee 
of the Roadmasters and Maintenance of Way Association* the 
following reasons are advanced why contract work is desirable: 

(a) A contractor can pa}^ his men what they are woith to him. 
(6) A contractor always has a following of expert laborers. 

(c) A contractor can fortify himself against all conditions and can 
have liis own boarding outfit and supply his men with better accommoda- 
tions than a railroad company. 

(d) Laborers understand that when they work for a contractor they 
have to do their part of the work or drop back to less pay or lose their 
places entirely. 

Table XV present's in a general way the kind of section work 
done in the different months of the year. 

* Bulletin, Aug. 10, 1913, p. 113. 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 



223 



TABLE XV 

Schedule op Section Woek 



Month. 


Kind of Section Work. 


December 

January 

February 

March first and second weeks 


Patrol track, clean snow and ice at switches; 
tighten track bolts and gauge track; dis- 
tribute ties and rails; bark ties; repair 
fences; put in tile drains, etc. 


March third and fourth weeks 


Spring ditching and cleaning. 


April, first and second weeks 


Place track in good line and surface. 


April third and fourth weeks 

May 

June 


Put in ties, using Saturdays (and Fridays if 
necessary) for cleaning and correcting errors 
in line and surface. 


July, first and second weeks 


Cut weeds 


July, third and fourth weeks 

August 

September 

October 


General line and surface. 


November 


Ditching, sloping, and final cleaning. 



82. Fires on Right of Way. — The section foreman should keep 
the right of way free from all rubbish and combustible material. 
All grass, weeds and brush should be cut once a year, preferably 
beginning the work July 1st, and making it the principal occu- 
pation until it has been completed, without, however, interfering 
with proper maintenance of track. The cut grass and brush 
when dry should be burned, under the supervision of the fore- 
man, who must do such burning with the greatest care to pre- 
vent damage to property. 

Dry grass, weeds and other combustible matter which is 
liable to be set on fire by passing engines must be burned 
thoroughly, whenever it is dry enough to burn, providing such 
burning can be done without danger of the fire spreading beyond 
control. No fire should be kindled anywhere, along the right 



224 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



of way by section men or other employees without placing a 
sufficient force to watch it. 

Where the line runs through wooded country the sparks from 
the locomotive are responsible for a great many of the destruc- 
tive forest fires which occur every dry season. 

Too much importance cannot well be placed upon the ques- 
tion of the prevention of forest fires. The enormous loss from 
fire in our forests ever}^ 3^ear is a matter of common knowledge. 
The value of standing timber destroyed each season from this 




Fig. 125. — Spark Arrester. (Mudge-Slater.) 



cause has varied from $25,000,000 to more than $100,000,000, 
the direct annual loss in recent years averaging considerably 
over $50,000,000. The destruction of young growth, though 
never included in estimates of fire damage, is a principal item of 
loss. The natural restocking of burned-over lands takes place 
very slowly or not at all. 

All experience goes to prove that damage by forest fires is 
practically preventable. This stage of development has already 
been reached in Europe. For example, of 7,000,000 acres in 
Prussia, an average of only 1400 acres, or one-fiftieth of 1 per 



TRACK AND RIGHT OF WAY 225 

cent was burned over each year during the period from 1868 
to 1895. 

The railroads by working with the State Forestry Officials 
can accompHsh a great deal of good in the way of prevention 
of fires started by sparks from locomotives. 

The Chicago and Northwestern was one of the first roads 
to use special devices to reduce this danger and have now many 
of their engines equipped with spark arresters. Fig. 125 illus- 
trates the Mudge-Slater spark arrester. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Surfacing 

Maintenance of "Way Standards on American Railways, F. A. Smith, 
1906, New York, pp. 26, 262, 419 (contains rules of track departments of 
different roads for tamping ballast). 

Deformations of Railroad Tracks and the Means of Remedjang 
Them, G. Cuenot, translated by W. C. Gushing, 1907, New York. 

Railroad Track Experiments, Pennsylvania Railroad, House Docu- 
ments, Vol. 46, 54th Congress, 1st Session, 1895-96, No. 54, Tests of 
Metals. 

Fences, Crossings and Signs 

Manual, 1911, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., pp. 199-215. 

Report of Committee on Signs, Fences and Crossings, Proceedings, 
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 14, 1913, pp. 791-829 (contains data on 
fence posts, fence wire and street crossings) . 

Ibid., Vol. 15, 1914, pp. 861-904 (contains data on signs and laws of 
different states relative to the erection of crossing signs) . 

Cattle Guards, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Bridge and Building Assn., 
1913, pp. 311-323. 

Concrete Posts, Poles and Signs, ibid., 1914, pp. 221-232. 

Snow Fences, ibid., pp. 267-278. 

American Railway Bridges and Buildings, W. G. Berg, 1898, Chicago, 
pp. 23-29 (cattle guards, compilation of official reports of the Assn. of 
Ry. Supt. B. & B.). 

Railroad Structures and Estimates, J. W. Orrock, 1909, New York, 
pp. 26-42 (fences, gates, sign posts, road crossings and guards). 

Maintenance of Way Standards, F. A. Smith, 1906, New York, 
pp. 542-544, signs; p. 513, cattle guards. 



226 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

Reinforced Concrete Railway Structures, J. D. W. Ball, 1914, New 
York, pp. 195-198 (concrete fence posts and signs). 

Concrete Fence Posts, The Farm Cement News (published by the 
Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago), Vol. 1, No. 7, pp. 2-27. 

Fence Post Trees, Forest Service Circular, No. 69. 

Preservative Treatment of Fence Posts, Forest Service, Circular 
No. 117. 

The Testing of Galvanized and other Zinc-coated Iron, W. H. Walker, 
Proceedings, Am. Soc. for Testing Materials, Vol. IX, 1909, pp. 431-441. 

Report of Committee U on the Corrosion of Iron and Steel, ibid., 
pp. 295-307 (contains report of tests on wire fence at the Carnegie 
Technical Schools, Pittsburgh). 

Theory and Practice of Sherardizing, Samuel Trood, The Iron Age, 
July 30 and Aug. 6, 1914. 

Section Work 

The Roadmaster's Assistant and Section-Master's Guide, W. S. 
Huntington, revised by Charles I^atimer, 1884, New York. 

Track, W. B. Parsons, Jr., 1886, New York. 

Railway Track and Track Work, E. E. Russell Tratman, 1909, New 
York. 

Maintenance of Way Standards, F. A. Smith, 1906, New York (con- 
tains rules and instructions governing the roadway departments of a 
number of different roads). 

Contracting of Maintenance Work, Roadmasters and Maintenance of 
Way Assn., Bulletin, August 10, 1913, pp. 112-113. 

Practical Track Work, K. L. Van Auken, 1915, Chicago. 

Fires on Right of Way 

Forest Fires, Clyde Leavitt, Report of the National Conservation 
Commission, Vol. 2, 1909, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
pp. 390-468. 



CHAPTER X 

STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS 

83. Local Stations. — At small stations provision is sometimes 
made for handling freight in the same building that contains 
the passenger station; this is called a combination station and is 




TRACK SIDE ELEVATION END ELEVATION 



i^\^ 












^/ii 


i *9 


■"\ 
\ 








-If 


/ 

(' 






/ 


Freight Room 


y,, ,.■„„,>„. 


Office 

\ 


1 WAiTino Room ''-, 


-ij 






...Ji..-.| 








^-. 1 1 


.t'-;-i-.--.-.-.v.--;iz--.-.-.-.-. 


..--_i.v-:__-.- 


-----z 


-.-.-.-.- --Azzzl^^ 




SECTION 



-- 36 '-(?-- 



^. — /j:^,- >^_ 2l'-0'--: 

: -fQ'.Q-. . 

FLOOR PLAN 



Fig. 126. — Combination Freight and Passenger Station at Bach, Mich., on 

the Michigan Central R. R. 



illustrated in Fig. 126. In moderate-sized stations the general 
arrangement is to provide a separate building for the freight. 
This is usually a single-story frame structure with high plat- 
forms. When the traffic is light the building is located alongside 
the main track, but where the traffic is heavy the freight house 
is placed on a side track. The side track may be located back 

227 



228 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



of the building, and if this is done it is called an island station. 
The advantage of the island station lies in the greater unload- 
ing platforms at the tracks as compared with greater teaming 
platforms in the former case. 

Stock yards are located at points where cattle are to be 
shipped. The ordinary stock 3^ard at a local station is made 
by fencing off one or more pens with a substantial board fence 




Fig. 127.— Mail Crane. (Barker.) 



about 6 ft. high with feed racks and watering faciUties. Where 
the business is considerable, the floor of the pens should be made 
of concrete. Chutes are provided for loading the cattle into 
the cars. These are generally made about 4 ft. wide with an 
easy incline from the level of the pen floor to the car. 

Mail cranes (Fig. 127) are placed at stations where it is neces- 
sary for the trains to receive mail without stopping. The crane 
consists of a post carrying two horizontal bars to which the mail 



STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS 



229 



bag may be attached. These arms are generally arranged so 
that as soon as the bag is taken by the mechanism on the mail 
car they automatically assume vertical positions to avoid danger 
of hitting objects on the train, the clearance of the end of the 
bars when in the horizontal position being scant. 

Fig. 128A shows a station layout for small towns with a com- 
bination freight and passenger J house. The freight-house track 




High Platform 



flail Crane ■ 
Main Tracks ' 



Mail Crane 
"■Planl< Crossing 



A. Small Towns. 




Pam^ '--J Cars ■ 7 Cars 
'Plank Crossing Main Tracks 



Platform PassengerSfa 25x70' 
Plank Crossing 



B. Larger Towns. 
Fig. 128. — Station Layouts. 



has a capacity of three cars and is situated next to a high plat- 
form at the freight end of the station. The team track has 
a capacity of 9 cars and serves the stock pens and the driveway 
back of the station. 

Fig. 1285 illustrates an arrangement for larger towns with 
separate buildings for the passenger and freight stations. Here 
the freight-house track has a capacity of 7 cars and the team 



230 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



tracks serving two driveways have a total capacity of. 30 cars. 
A small crane is located near one of the team tracks to facilitate 
the handling of heavy freight to and from the cars. Scales for 
weighing the cars are placed in the switching lead over which all 
cars pass to the freight-house and team tracks. The passenger 




A. Brick Station at Holly, Colo. 




B. Concrete Station at Ponca City, Okla. 
Fig. 129. — Local Passenger Stations on the A. T. & Santa F6 Ry. 



station is placed apart from the freight house and surrounded 
by a grass plot with flower beds. 

The tendency on most roads is to adopt an artistic design 
for local passenger stations along the line, and to further beautify 
these by improving the grounds. Many railroads have a sepa- 
rate department in charge of a chief gardener who has charge 



STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS 231 

of the station grounds and lays them out and maintains the 
flower beds and shrubbery. 

Fig. 129 shows examples of local passenger stations. 

Local stations are generally side stations, although if the topog- 
raphy of the adjacent ground is suitable, they may be made 
overhead or under stations. The overhead station can be used 
if the road is in a cut or located on a side hill, and in cities where 
the track is elevated it is frequently desirable to place the sta- 
tion below the tracks on the street level. On heavy-traffic 
roads, especially if there are more than two tracks, subways or 
overhead bridges are constructed to enable the passengers to 
reach the trains without having to cross the tracks. This is 
especially true if the line is electrified. In the case of a side 
station provided with means for the passengers to cross the track, 
either above or below grade, covered platforms are usually placed 
alongside the track opposite from the station. 

84. Terminal Passenger Stations. — Fig. 130 shows the Penn- 
sylvania Railroad Station at New York, the Union Station at 
Washington and the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad Station 
at Chicago. These magnificent structures indicate the trend of 
recent construction in the erection of passenger terminals in the 
important cities of this country. The large cost of the modern 
passenger terminal has given rise to considerable doubt as to 
the wisdom of spending so much to beautify the building, and it 
is felt by some railroad men that it is time to call a halt on the 
present heavy expenditures for passenger stations. 

Mr. Howson states in this connection:* 

When it costs the New Haven Railroad $0.31 for each passenger 
brought into the Grand Central Terminal in spite of its tremendous 
traffic (I quote from the last annual report of President Elliott), and 
when another road finds that its share of the cost and fixed charges and 
the cost of operation of the new Kansas City Station is equal to 37 per 
cent of its entire gross passenger receipts, it is time for us to consider 
whether these structures are justified from a sound economic position. 

One of the most radical departures from the older type to 
be found in the modern station lies in the design of the train 

* liecture before the Detroit Engineering Society, January 8, 1915. 



232 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




(Courtsey of West inghouse. Church, Kerr & Co.) 

A Pennsylvania Railroad Station, New York City; Seventh Avenue and 

Thirty-first Street Fronts. 




B. Union Station, Washington 




C. Chicago and North Western Railway, Chicago Terminal. 
Fig. 130. — Passenger Terminals. 



STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS 233 

shed. For many years the train sheds for large railway ter- 
minals have consisted of long span roof trusses supporting high 
roofs, generally spanning all of the tracks. 

The height of these stations had its origin in an effort to 
locate the steel work and skylights as far as possible from the 
direct effect of the engine gases and smoke, and to improve 
the ventilation in the shed. The heavy depreciation of these 
sheds and the poor ventilation obtained has led to the introduc- 




FiG. 131.— Bush Train Shed. 

tion of the type illustrated in Fig. 131, which is used in nearly 
all of the recent installations. The photograph is taken in 
the Hoboken train-shed structure of the Lackawanna and shows 
an engine standing within the shed underneath the smoke duct. 

85. Terminal Freight Stations.— The question of freight 
terminal stations is a very large one, and in order to form some 
conception of the problem the following description of the Soo 
Line freight terminal in Chicago is given.* 

* The author is indebted to the Leonard Construction Co. for the details 
pf this terminal. 



234 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

Referring to Fig. 132, the terminal is located near the center 
of the business and manufacturing district of the city and covers 
eleven city blocks. 

The City of Chicago would not permit the building of a 
terminal of this size at street level, or with any grade crossings. 
The problem resolved itself, therefore, into two alternate pos- 
sibilities; retaining walls could be built along the streets and 
the area filled, with bridges across the streets, and large terminal 
storage houses provided in addition to the freight houses required 
for the actual handling of the freight to and from the cars. 

The second possibility is the one embodied in the plan 
decided upon. The terminal tracks in this arrangement are 
all carried on a deck structure continuing uninterruptedly across 
the streets, almost the entire area of the property beneath this 
structure, excepting the five streets left open for traffic, being 
available for storage purposes, amounting in all to over 600,000 
sq. ft. 

All of this space is at the street level directly accessible to 
teams for city distribution and served also by the tracks of the 
Chicago Terminal Company. From the street the track deck 
is reached by two inclined driveways, one from Twelfth Street 
on the north, and the other from Fourteenth Place on the south. 

The freight houses and office building are located at the 
north end of the terminal. The main in- and out-freight houses 
are built 460 ft. long. The in-freight is four stories high, it is 
50 ft. wide with a floor space of about 100,000 sq.ft. This house 
is served by five tracks along Canal Street with a capacity of 
80 cars. Five elevators distribute the freight received on the 
second floor to the upper and lower floors. One tunnel elevator 
serves the second floor directly. Three spiral chute conveyors 
are also installed. 

The out-freight house is two stories high and is served by 
eight tracks with a capacity of 105 cars. The building is 35 ft. 
6 ins. wide with a floor space of 65,000 sq.ft. The freight is 
received from the driveways through 16 team doors on the first 
floor, and 18 on the second. Two freight elevators serve the 
Qrst and second floors. A 10-ton 20 ft. radius pillar crane for 




kV IEth. St 



Summary of Principal Dimensions 

Width of Terminal at 12th and Maxwell Sts 345 feet 

" " *' at 14th Street. .:.... 325 " 

'• " •' at 14th Place 376 " 

" •' *' atl5th Place 2000 «' 

Length of Terminal from 12th to 1 5th Place 2056 " 

Widthof western approach of Terminal 83 " 

Total mileage of track. , 6 miles 

Car capacity at present In Freight tracks 80 cars 

•' '* '• "' Out " '« 105 " 

" '• •' " Team Tracks. 260 " 

Area of ground covered 18.5 acres (800,000 sq. ft.) 

" " working space (total) 34.7 acres (1,500,000 sq. ft.) 

" " " *' under roof... 17.9 acres (780,000 sq. ft.) 

" " storage space under track slab 12 acres (525,000 sq. ft.) 

Present length of Freight Houses < 460 feet 

Width Out Freight House (2 stories) 35' 6" 

Width In Freight House (4 stories now) 60' 0" 

" driveway between Freight Houses (2 stories) 58' 0" 

" incline driveways from streets 35' 0" 

Streets left at established levels (no depression). 



W 12 TH. 



t 



to 





MAx\A/ell 


St 








LlBCRTY 


St 






^ 


W 14 TH. 


St 






>. 


Barber 


St 


1 





St 



1 r 



Fig. 132. — Soo Line Freight Terminal, Chicago. 



235 



236 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



handling heavy castings, etc., is located on the out-freight plat- 
form, so as to serve cars, trucks and platform from one fixed 
position. 

The team tracks are located south of Maxwell Street and have 
a total capacit}^ of 259 cars, which can be greatly increased 
when the need arises. A traveling crane serves four tracks 
near the south incline driveway. A 9 ft. by 20 ft. auto-truck scale 



\ /2-e'- >j<— 7-'^--f|<— -7-'<5|->^-— 7-'<5i->|<— 7-'5--->i<- /2-6 "— [^ 

3£ 




■JlZl Z I 3LXU- 



2S>'6 >r^ 29-6''- ->i'2-jK 

A, Bessemer and Lake Erie R. R. (Am. Ry. Bridge & Bldg. Assn.) 

Beam 




^z P3 P4 

B. Diagram of. (Epright.) 
Fig. 133.— Track Scales. 



is located in a central position with regard to the inclines and 
driveways. The flat unobstructed deck permits the tracks 
to be rearranged at any time as experience may show to be 
desirable for the more efficient operation of the terminal. 

86. Track Scales. — Fig. 133A shows the scale used on the 
Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad built by the Carnegie Steel 



STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS 237 

Co. In this scale the overhang to the track rails brings the 
impact of the car entering the scale on the weigh bridge at a 
point one-fifth the distance between the end knife edges and 
those of the first section next to them. 

In the earlier scales no overhang was provided for, and the 
wheel of the oncoming car when going across the gap between 
the scale rail and the track rail would strike a blow on the weigh 
bridge beyond any support, thus putting the full weight of the 
wheels on the first section with a leverage increasing the load 
considerably, and also having a tendency to lift the bridge from 
the bearings of the second section. 

Most roads now use a design with an overhang. The Pitts- 
burgh and Lake Erie Railroad use an easer rail in addition to 
the overhang. The function of the easer rail is to carry the 
wheel over the gap, which is accomplished by means of an angle bar 
with an upward projection which supports the tread of the wheel. 

When the scale is on a hump or other track upon which 
cars are switched which may not require weighing, dead rails, 
or rails independent of the weighing bridge of the scale are fre- 
quently employed to save useless wear of the scales. 

The diagram in Fig. 1335 shows how the weight of the car 
is carried to the beam. The following description given by 
Mr. Epright explains the operation of the scale:* 

The weight of the platform and load is carried on the main levers 
My Ml, M2, Mz, etc., at the points marked TF. One end of each of the 
main levers is supported on a supporting post mounted on the founda- 
tions at the points marked Pi, P2, etc., and the other end transmits the 
force of the load to the extension levers Ei, ^2, ^3, E4, at the points 
mi, m2, ms, and m^. The extension levers run parallel to the track and 
are supported on piers at the points marked F. The ends of these levers 
are connected by links marked rii, 7i2, ris, and n^ by means of which the 
pressure of the load is transferred from the points mi, m2, etc. to the 
fifth lever ^^ 5 ^' at L. The fifth lever conveys the combined force 
from all of the levers to the shelf lever >S, from which it is conveyed 
to the beam. 

* Standard Track Scales on the Pennsylvania R.R., A. W. Epright, 
Sixth Annual Convention on Weights and Measures, Bureau of Standards, 
Washington. 



238 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



87. Roadway Buildings. At crossings where a flagman is 
employed watchmen's shanties are provided. These houses, 
as the name implies, are used to afford shelter to the watchmen 
employed by the railroad at crossings or bridges and in yards for 
the switch tenders. They are generally built of wood and are 
provided with a stove, bench and locker-room. 

The tool or section house is used for storing the hand car 
and tools used by the section gang. There is usually one house 




1<- 20'0"-- >l 

Track Elevation. 



WVVVvVWVVWVVVWWWW.VsS.WWVJ 



I A-'d\- window 

61 /ding Doori^^^ 



yi^ tS^^^^^^^^^^^^^'^^^v^a 



k- 20'0- 

Nearesf Rai/-^ 



Window: 



i-H 



d'O' 



PI 



an 



Fig. 134A. — Section Tool House, Roadway Buildings. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.) 



for each section of the road. The building should be located 
alongside the track preferably on a siding so that the hand car 
may be lifted on and off the track at the minimum risk. There 
should be sufficient space between the track and the house to 
enable the car to be run out of the house and clear trains using 
the track. 

Fig. 134A shows the house recommended by the American 
Railway Engineering Association for Class A roads, or roads 
having more than one main track. 



STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS 



239 




^'Cfrs. 
Elevation. 



V^//////// 



///////^//A V/////// 



Store 



ffo 



o m 



m 



Plan 



Platform 



0-fF/ce 



I Sidinc 



8 '^-SrG. 
boards - 



^^^^ksLdg^gndGra^e/ 




Section . 
Fig. 1345.— Store House, Roadway Buildings. (After Orrock.) 



240 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



The house is 14 ft. by 20 ft. with the long dimension parallel 
to the track and has a sliding door 8 ft. in the clear located at 
the extreme end on the track side to permit the storing of the 
hand car. 



Composition Roofing 
Reinforced Concrete », 



PitchTSoXo 



rx^'SSt'^"'- 




m 



i 



1 



Ro w of Pumps to be Conveniently Located ^ 
one for each Kind of Oil. ^^ 



Isolated Fumps may be in Building or 
Outside^ or in other Buildings as Required. 

Pipes in Floor to Supply Tanks from Barrels. 

Building to be Heated by Steam and Light- 
ed by Electricity when Available. 



- -20'0"- ; 

Feinf. Concrete Floor 4^' 



13 Brick Wall 



'<" Sliding Door 

Tin Clad 



Slops ^ 



.6' Concrete 
' '6"Cinder5 



Reinf. Concrete Beam 

^'Opening for Ventilation To 

Covered with Wire Netting Tanks 



Tanks to be of such Number and Size 
as required, and Head Room in Basemen t t-— J 
to be Determined Auordingly. 

<: Concrete 




Concrete-. 



w^ i r^^ y N. rrvTT^ 



■.r.''?-SVT'?.''?nTJ: 



>:76 



5and or 
Gravel Filling \^2Q'^ ""^ 



Cinders: 



■A-rv--.v?5.'« ;;.^-,T[ 



Fig. 134C. — Oil House, Roadway Buildings. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.) 



For smaller roads or branch lines the house may be reduced 
in size to 10 ft. by 14 ft. with the short dimension parallel to 
the track and provided with a double swinging door, swinging 
out, on the end nearest to the track for the entrance of the hand 
car. The building in that case may rest on wooden posts, unless 
the location can be permanent, in which case brick or concrete 
posts may be substituted. 



STATION AND ROADWAY BUILDINGS 241 

When accommodations are hard to find for the laborers on 
the Une of the road, section dwelling houses are frequently erected 
by the company for the use of their employees. 

The storehouse is used for supplies for general service in 
maintenance and operation. It is usually a frame structure 
and should be provided with the necessary bins and racks to 
hold the stores. The oils for rolling stock and for use in the 
shops are sometimes kept in the storehouse, but more frequently 
a separate building is provided on account of the danger from 
fire. 

Fig. 134J5 illustrates a small storehouse 30 ft. by 30 ft. with 
platform.* 

Fig. 134(7 shows a cross-section of a typical oil house, 20 ft. 
by 40 ft. The American Railway Engineering Association recom- 
mends the following in regard to oil houses :t 

1. Where practicable, oil houses at terminals should be isolated 
from the other buildings. 

2. Oil houses should be fireproof, and the storage in large houses 
should preferably be underground or in the basement. 

3. Oils that are stored in sufficient quantities should be delivered 
to the tanks in the house direct from tank cars. For oils that are stored 
only in small quantities provision should be made for delivery to storage 
tanks from barrels by pipes through the floor. 

4. The delivery system from the storage tanks to the faucets should 
be such that the oil can be delivered quickly and measured automat- 
ically. The delivery should also be such that there will be a minimum 
of dripping at the faucet and that the dripping be drained to the storage 
tanks. 

5. Opening for ventilation should be provided above the level of 
the top of the tanks. 

6. Lighting, when required, should be by electricity and heating 
by steam. 

* Railroad Structures and Estimates, J. W. Orrock, 1909. John Wiley 
&Sons, New York, p. 130. 
t Manual, 1911, p. 123. 



242 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Stations 

Buildings and Structures of American Railroads, W. G. Berg, 1900, 
New York. 

Freight Terminals and Trains, J. A. Droege, 1912, New York. 
Railroad Structures and Estimates, J. W. Orrock, 1909, New York. 

Track Scales 

Standard Track Scales of the Pennsylvania R.R., A. W. Epright, 
Sixth Annual Conference on Weights and Measures held at the Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, February, 1911. 

Railroad Track Scale, W. W. Boyd, Journal Am. Soc. of Mech. Engrs., 
September, 1914, pp. 329-336. 

Track Scales, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Bridge and Building Assn., 1913, 
pp. 57-222. 

Roadway Buildings 

Manual, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911. Section Tool Houses, p. 124; 
Oil Houses, p. 123. 

Railroad Structures and Estimates, J. W. Orrock, 1909, New York. 
Watch Houses, p. 91; Section Tool Houses, p. 87; Section Dwelling 
Houses, p. 92; Store Houses, p. 129. 

Buildings and Structures of American Railroads, W. G. Berg, 1900, 
New York. Watch Houses, pp. 1-5; Section Tool Houses, pp. 6-13; 
Section Dwelling Houses, pp. 14-27; Storehouses, pp. 81-112. 



CHAPTER XI 
WATER STATIONS 

The essential features of a water station are: 

1. The source of water supply. 

2. The pumps for elevating the water into the tank. 

3. The power used to drive the pumps. 

4. The pipe lines for conducting water to the tanks and 
stand pipe. 

5. The tanks for storing the supply of water. 

6. The stand pipes or track tanks for delivering the water to 
the locomotives. 

7. The apparatus for treating the water when it is not adapted 
for use in the boilers of the locomotives without some preliminary 
treatment. 

In selecting the location for the station an investigation of 
the permanency and volume of water available at all times of 
the year must be made, and if there is any doubt as to the 
water's suitability for engine use it should be analyzed to deter- 
mine this. 

88. Pumping. — The pumps generally used are geared in the 
case of gas or oil engines (Fig. 135) and connected directly to 
the piston when steam is employed. 

When the water is pumped from deep wells a deep-well pump 
is used. The piston of the pump operates at the end of a long 
rod and raises the water. Fig. 136 illustrates a Fairbanks-Morse 
horizontal-geared base engine connected to one of their deep- 
well packing heads, of the displacement plunger type. This 
arrangement dispenses with a walking beam for operating the 
deep-well pump. Hydraulic rams are sometimes employed where 

243 



244 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




Fig. 135. — Combined Gasoline Pumper. (Fairbanks-Morse.) 




Fig. 136. — Geared Base Engine Operating Deep Well Pump. (Fairbanks- 
Morse.) 



WATER STATIONS 



245 



a large supply is available and the conditions are otherwise favor- 
able for elevating the water by this means. A few installations 
of compressed-air pumping have also been made. 

Steam and gasoline engines are probably used in this service 
to a greater extent than any other form of power. In regions 
where slack coal is available to be burnt under the boilers the 
steam engine predominates, but the gasoline engine, where in- 
expensive slack coal is not to be had, has a large use, probably 
on account of the small amount of attention it requires. Electric 
pumps are nearly automatic in their action and where electrical 
energy is cheap these are to be recommended. 

Owing to the increased cost of gasoline, other forms of 
power are being investigated to take its place (see Table XVI). 
Crude oil, which. is a product obtained in the manufacture of 



TABLE XVI 

Comparison of Cost of Pumping Water 
(Am. Ry. Bridge and Building Assn. Proceedings, 1911, p. 114) 



Boiler. 


Pump. 


Total 
Head 
(Feet) 


Fuel. 


Cost 

per 
Horse 
Power 
Hour. 


Type. 


Horse 
Power 


Kind. 


Price. 


Vertical 

Locomotive. . . . 

Vertical 

Locomotive. . . . 

Walled in 

Walled in 

Motor 

Walled in 

Vertical 

Gasoline 

Vertical 

Gasoline 

Gas engine, oil 

Fixture 

Oil engine 

Gasoline 


45 
60 
45 
60 
150 
80 
25 
40 
40 
12 
45 
6 

6 

12 

6 


Duplex 

Duplex 

Duplex 

Comp. duplex. 
Comp. duplex. 

Duplex 

D. A. duplex. . 

Deep well 

Deep well 

Deep well 

Air compressor. 
Single 

Single 

S. A. Triplex. . 
Double acting . 


104 

196 

139 

220 

220 

37 

49 

93 

51 

108 

230 

61 

59 

143 

71 


Mine run coal . 
Mine run coal . 
Mine run coal . 
Screenings .... 
Screenings .... 
Screenings. . . . 
Elec. current. . 
Screenings .... 
Mine run coal . 

Gasoline 

Mine run coal . 
Gasoline 

Power distillate 

Fuel oil 

Gasoline 


$2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 

.04 
1.00 
2.00 

.12 
2.00 

.12 

.03i 

.02 

.12 


$0.0316 
0.0306 
0.0354 
0.0097 
0.0070 
0.0210 
0.0420 
0.0230 
0.0640 
0.0600 
0.0320 
0.0402 

0.0094 
0.0026 
0.0486 



246 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

gasoline, has for some time been considered as a possible sub- 
stitute for the refined oil used in the internal combustion engine. 
The crude oil is very much cheaper than gasoline, but the earlier 
experiments were not very successful on account of the heavy 
carbon deposit left on the cylinders, which seriously interfered 
with the operation of the engine. Of later years better results 
have been obtained, and it would seem that this fuel may event- 
ually prove a satisfactory substitute for gasoline. 

Oil engines have been built using the heat of combustion 
in several ways to develop power. The ordinary explosion type 
of engine, in which the combustion is completed in so short a 
time that practically no change in the cylinder volume takes 
place during combustion, employs a method of using heat much 
more efficient than the method available for a steam engine, yet 
far less eflicient than is actually possible. In an attempt to 
realize in an engine the most favorable method of using heat. 
Dr. Rudolph Diesel, of Munich, proposed in 1893 what has 
proved to be, from a thermal standpoint, the most economical 
heat engine so far devised, and the one that most nearly ap- 
proaches theoretical maximum efficiency. 

In the Diesel engine the mixture is not exploded by a spark 
as in the ordinary gas or gasoline engine, but by the high tem- 
perature obtained by compressing the mixture in the cylinder; 
a more uniform and certain explosion is thus obtained, enabling 
a greater range of fuel to be used with good results. The effi- 
ciency is relatively very high, but on account of the unusual pres- 
sures employed to get the necessary heat to explode the mixture 
an expensive construction is required. 

Producer gas in the small units required in this service has to 
be made from anthracite coal, which costs about twice what 
it is necessary to pay for bituminous coal. Even under these 
conditions the cost of power from the producer is much less than 
in the case of the gasoline engine, and on account of the steady 
load on the engine and consequent even draft on the producer 
it is working under favorable conditions to produce its greatest 
efficiency. 

The author installed a small producer gas plant in water 



WATER STATIONS 247 

station service in 1909. The plant consists of a 21 H.P. Fair- 
banks' Morse Suction Gas Producer, which furnishes gas to a 
remodeled 20 H.P. gasoline engine made by the same company, 
the engine being the same that was formerly used at the station 
with gasohne fuel. A brake test on the plant shortly after it 
was installed showed that it was developing 1 B.H.P. hour per 
1.5 lbs. of coal. 

The station has shown a marked saving since the producer 
was installed over the cost of operating the old plant, and in 
general it appears that where the pump is required to be run 
for 8 or 10 hours out of the 24 so that the stand by loss is not 
too great in the producer a producer gas plant will effect a saving 
over gasoline engines. 

The pipe lines' are generally of 10 to 14 in. cast-iron pipe. 
In most cases this is laid with leaded joints, but the use of a 
pipe with a ball and socket joint with the ends of the sections 
bolted together has been quite successful in a number of instal- 
lations. 

Wood pipe lines have be6n used in the West where it is neces- 
sary to convey the water long distances. The wood pipe used 
in laying the line from Bonito to Pastura (250 miles long, vary- 
ing from 16 ins. to 3^ ins.) for the El Paso and Southwestern 
Railway was machine-made, spirally wound, wood-stave pipe, 
made in sections from 8 to 12 ft. long with the exterior surface 
covered with a heavy coat of asphalt. The pipe was wound 
with flat steel bands, of from 14 to 18 gauge and from 1 to 2 ins. 
wide.* 

The line should be laid with long radius elbows and gate 
valves used throughout, especially between the tank and the 
stand pipes, to reduce the friction to a minimum and obtain as 
great a head as possible for rapid delivery of water to the engine 
tank. 

89. Tanks. — Storage tanks were formerly made to hold 50,000 
to 80,000 gallons, but now quite generally have a capacity of 

* The Water Supply of the El Paso and Southwestern Railway from 
Carrizozo to Santa Rosa, N. Mex., J. L. Campbell, Trans. Am. Soc. of 
Civil Engrs., December, 1910, Vol. LXX, pp. 164-189. 



248 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



100,000 gallons, although the Pennsylvania seems to prefer a 
50,000-gallon unit for their wood tanks on account of greater 
safety in case one tank is destroyed. The older tanks were 
usually made of w^ood and supported on a wood or steel sub- 
structure. Fig. 137A shows a wood tank on a steel substructure. 
In recent years concrete tanks and steel tanks have come into 
quite common use. 

The steel tank shown in 
Fig. 1375 is typical of the 
design prepared by the 
Pennsylvania Railroad en- 
gineers. The height of the 
top of the tank is 48 ft. 
and of the bottom 22 ft. 
These are made of 50,000, 





^ . Wood Tank, Steel Substructure. B. Steel Tank. 

Fig. 137.— Water Tanks. 



WATER STATIONS 249 

75,000 and 100,000 gallons capacity. The leg from the bottom 
of the tank to the ground is about 4 ft. in diameter and is not 
insulated. In colder climates, as in the case of the steel tanks 
on the Grand Trunk Pacific, a heating plant is provided and 
the water in the leg is heated to prevent the formation of 
ice. 

Fig. 138 shows a type of railroad tank used in cold climates 
where it is necessary to heat the water during the winter season. 

It will be noted that at the base of the riser pipe provision 
has been made for installing a stove and the entire riser pipe is 
enclosed in a two-ply frost case having suitable doors, which 
permit of access to the interior of the steel riser. The arrange- 
ment of spouts and fittings, which have been found very satis- 
factory, is shown in some detail on this drawing. Above the 
spout valves on the interior of the tank is shown an ice rack. 
This is to protect valves in the event of ice forming inside of the 
tank in spite of the heating system. The spout inlet valves are 
located as near the center of the riser pipe as possible so they 
will be protected from the cold. 

90. Stand Pipes. — Stand pipes are used to deliver the water 
to the engine when the latter is at rest, and track tanks when it 
is desired to take water when the train is in motion. 

The stand pipe, or water column, as it is sometimes called, 
consists of a vertical pipe with a horizontal pipe projecting at 
right angles near the top of the column. The column is supported 
on bearings which permit it to be rotated through 90 degrees 
from its normal position (i. e., with the horizontal pipe parallel 
to the track) so as to bring the end of the horizontal pipe over 
the engine tank. The column should be arranged to lock parallel 
to the track. In Fig. 139(7 this is accomplished by means of 
the cam and rollers shown in section MM. The stand-pipe valve 
is located at the base of the vertical pipe and admits the water 
to the column. The valve is generally automatic or semi- 
automatic in its action, and is controlled by the fireman on the 
engine tank by means of a lever on the horizontal pipe or spout 
connected through suitable levers to the operating mechanism of 
the valve. This is shown in Fig. 139C; the sHding collar G is 



250 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



connected to the levers on the spout and its motion is transmitted 
to the small operating valve F. 



Roof for El''^ Tank 
i Pitch. Metal /^.^ 



Venfil'aton 

Swivel Ladder^ 
Bar 2>/i 



delt Angle 
Con/Spherical ^' 




\IZ"L\ColumnSy 

^ Y_.-Ladder\^aron 
K One \Coiumn 

e'd'^Skel Riser 



'Spout and Rigging 

-I Ply Frost Casi 

Valve Operating 
-^ Mectianism 

p-6"^3lo^v-off Pipe 



w^.nwf r /^vy/i^/^/yi^^^^ j y gy ^^^ 




Fig. 138.— Steel Tank with Heater. (Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Co.) 

The investigation of tlie friction in stand pipes and stand- 
pipe valves made several years ago by the Committee on Water 
Service of the American Railway Engineering Association has 



WATER STATIONS 



251 





A. Gulland Valve. 



B. Sheffield Valve. 



■Cam 




Details H.J.K, 



C. U. S. Valve. D. Mansfield Valve. 

Fig. 139.— Stand Pipe Valves. 



252 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



thrown much hght* upon the proper design of this apparatus. 
It was found that the loss of head, especially in the stand-pipe 
valve, w^as excessive, and to obtain the necessary flow of water 
a much larger pipe was required than would be the case with 
proper design. 

Table XVII show^s the loss in head found in the different 
valves and columns tested at the University of Illinois Engineer- 
ing Experimental Station under the direction of the Committee. 



TABLE XVII 

Loss OF Head in 10-ix. Water Columns. (Talbot and Enger) 
(The loss is given in feet of water for the discharge indicated) 



' 


3000 Gals 


per Min. 


5000 Gals 


per Min. 


Designation. 












Valve. 


Total. 


Valve. 


Total. 


I 


12.6 


15.5 


35.0 


43.0 


II 


12.6 


17.7 


35.0 


- 49.0 


III 


11.3 


14.2 


31.3 


39.3 


IV 


11.1 


16.2 


31.0 


45.0 


V 


6.4 


12.5 


18.0 


35.0 


VI 


16.3 


23.5 


45.0 


65.0 


VII 


20.0 


26.1 


55.0 


72.0 


VIII 


9.0 


13.0 


25.0 


35.5 


IX 


6.4 


13.1 


17.8 


36.5 


X 


13.5 


20.3 


37.5 


56.5 


XI 


1.6 


8.7 


4.3 


24.0 


XII 


6.1 


8.9 


17.0 


24.6 


XIII 


6.2 


12.1 


17.3 


33.0 


XIV 


6.5 


8.9 


17.8 


24.6 



Valve XI was a hydrauhcally operated gate submitted by the 
author to determine what would be the least possible loss which 
it would be practicable to have in a stand-pipe valve. 

These tests showed that the loss of head was excessive in most 
of the valves used in the service, and as a result many of the 
designs have been modified to conform to more correct hydraulic 
principles. 



WATER STATIONS 253 

The question of water hammer in these valves is a serious 
one and is overcome, or partially overcome, in the valves in 
several ways. Referring to Fig. 139A, the GuUand valve has 
V-shaped openings through which the water passes and as the 
valve closes the water is gradually shut off, stopping the flow 
without shock. 

In the valve shown in Fig. 139C, E is the operating piston and 
valve packed with a cup leather. At F is the auxiliary valve, 
operative from the delivery spout by means of a system of levers. 
At S is the assisting spring, which assists the valve to begin the 
motion of closing. 

At H are slots in the brass pipe /, through which water from 
the main enters to close the valve. These slots are surrounded 
by a bushing K, which acts like a valve to gradually close them, 
until, when the valve is near the end of its movement, the slots 
are so nearly closed that the valve comes gently to its seat. 

In the Mansfield valve, Fig. 139Z), the valve is controlled 
directly by levers and is not hydraulically operated, as is the case 
with the valves shown in Figs. A and C. This valve is nearly 
balanced to make the valve easy to operate. It will be observed 
that in the case of water hammer when the valve is being closed 
the excess pressure will cause the spring to be compressed and 
the valve will open, the spring acting as a relief or shock absorber. 

The relief valve shown in Fig. 1395 acts in the same way and 
opens when the pressure caused by the water hammer rises 
beyond a certain point. 

It is interesting to note in this connection that the injurious 
effects of water hammer occur only during the last part of the 
closure, and the pressure does not rise until the valve is very 
nearly closed. 

This is an important point and one that it is well to emphasize 
in the design of stand-pipe valves. The long column of rapidly 
moving water in the pipe line if brought to rest without proper 
provision to absorb the shock will damage the valve and have a 
tendency to open up the joints of the pipe line. On the other 
hand if the valve be closed more slowly than is necessary through- 
out the entire stroke, then the time required for the engine to 



254 RAILWAY :\IAINTENANCE 

take water will be unusually long. The ideal arrangement 
appears to be a rapid movement of the valve for about 85 per 
cent of the closure and then a gradual reduction of the opening 
until final closure is efi^cted. 

Fig. 140 illustrates methods of delivering water to the engine 
tank. Fig. 140A shows a rigid spout column; to prevent loss 
of water a metal sleeve is sometimes swung from the end of the 
spout, or the anti-splash or honey-comb de^^ce shown in C is 
used to direct the water. The adjustable spout shown in B is 
now generally emploA^ed to prevent loss of water between the 
spout and tender. D and E present other arrangements of 
spouts. The spout was formerly nearh' alwa^^s attached to the 
tank, as shown in D, but this method is now used only on unim- 
portant lineS; as it affords less flexibilit}' of arrangement than the 
individual stand pipes which may be placed at the most con- 
venient location for the engine to take water irrespective of where 
the tank is placed. 

91. Track Tanks. — The track tank Fig. 141 consists of a steel 
tank about 1400 to 1800 ft. long* located between the rails and 
into which a scoop is lowered from the bottom of the engine 
tender. On account of the inertia of the water and the speed 
of the train the water is forced up into the engine tank. 

The principal points of divergence in track tank construction 
lie in the methods employed to heat the water and prevent 
its freezing in the tank in cold weather. The systems employed 
for this purpose are firs', the direct heating by means of jets 
of steam entering the water at frequent inten^als from the side 
of the tank, and second, what is known as the circulation system 
in which the cold water flows from the tank and is forced up 
through other openings by an injector which at the same time raises 
the temperature of the water. The latter s^^stem is much the more 
expensive of the two and while it is used by the Pennsylvania, 
Lake Shore and other important roads, it would hardly seem that 
the benefits derived warrant the extra cost of its construction. 

* Tanks 2000 ft. or even 2500 ft. in length are used on some roads 
where trains are double headed, to provide the necessary capacity for the 
two engines to obtain water. 



WATER STATIONS 



255 









A, Rigid Spout. 




C Anti-splash Nozzle. 




^'- y^v^jr^^ . 



B, Adjustable Spout, 





E* U. S. Wind Engine and Pump Co.'s D. 60,000-gallon Tank with 

Spout on Coaling Bridge. Spout on Tank. 

Fig, 140,— Methods of DeUy^ring Water tg Engine Tanks; Spouts, 



256 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




3 



02 

H 



J^ 


QQ 


o 


P^ 


03 




f^ 


cS 


H 


H 


a; 




C 


tL 


^ 


a 




W 


OJ 




ri 


o 


fl 


^^i 


3 


f^ 


H 






03 


S 


^ 


<D 




-i-3 


bl 




fl 




Sh 




o 


CJ 


> 


o 


,__) 




<l; 


c^ 


Q 



O 






WATER STATIONS 



257 



Fig. 141(7 shows a track tank on 
a four-track line. In the center 
between the middle tracks may be 
observed the box containing the 
steam line for heating the water in 
the troughs by the jet system, which 
was formerly used. This has been 
superseded and the circulation sys- 
tem is now employed at the station. 
The end of the tunnels containing 
the pipes for the system can be seen 
outside of the right-hand track. The 
picture is interesting as showing also 
the inclined approaches to the tanks, 
the dapping of the ties where the 
center tanks haye been shortened 
and the stone flagging used to 
prevent the water which is thrown 
out of the tank washing away the 
ballast. 

92. Water-treating Plants. — Hard 
water can be softened before it is put 
into locomotive boilers by treating it 
with chemicals. Water whose hard- 
ness is due to carbonates of lime and 
magnesia can be softened at a mod- 
erate expense for chemicals by the 
use of lime alone, without adding any 
soluble salts to the softened water. 
Water whose hardness is due to sul- 
phates of lime and magnesia can be 
softened, but at a greater expense, by 
the use of soda ash, a more expensive 
chemical. In this case soluble sul- 
phate of soda will be added to the 
softened water, increasing the ten- 
dency to foam. 







T—l 



O 



258 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



The mechanical methods of modem water softeners differ 
widely, but consist of two general types, the continuous and the 
intermittent. In the continuous type the natural water enters 
the softener, passes through one or more chambers and finally 
flows off into the storage tank, the sludge resulting from the 
chemical reactions being precipitated to the bottom of the 
softener and drawn oft' at intervals as required. In the inter- 




FiG. 141C.— Track Tank on L. S. & M. S. Rv. 



mittent type the water passes into settling tanks and is, after 
the soUds have been precipitated, drawn oft' into storage tanks 
ready for use.* 

A great deal of the engine water does not require treatment, 
but in cases of bad or contaminated water such, for example, 
as that obtained from a source of supply which receives the 
pumpings from coal mines, treatment has effected a considerable 
saving in engine repairs, besides gi^ing much better steaming 
qualities in the boilers. 

* See Manual Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, p. 341-349. 



WATER STATIONS 259 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Water Stations 

Historical Notes on the Water Supply of the N.Y.C. and H.R.R.R., 
C. H. Rice, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 10, Part 1, 1909, 
pp. 794-809. 

Relative Values of Coal and Gasoline as Fuel for Railroad Pump- 
ing Stations, A. K. Shurtleff, ibid., pp. 781-791. 

Track Tanks, ibid., Vol. 14, 1913, pp. 892-912. 

American Producer Gas Practice, N. Latta, 1910, New York. 

Resistance to Flow through Locomotive Water Columns, A. N. 
Talbot and M. L. Enger, University of Illinois, Engineering Experi- 
mental Station, Bulletin No. 48, 1911. 

Railroad Structures and Estimates, J. W. Orrock, 1909, New York, 
pp. 174-206. 

American Railway Bridges and Buildings, W. G. Berg, 1898, Chicago, 
pp. 34-36, 47-52, 60-61. 

Buildings and Structures of American Railroads, W. G. Berg, 1900, 
NewYork, pp. 113-129. 

Manual, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1911, pp. 341-390. 

General Specifications for Steel Water Tank, ibid., 1912, pp. 43, 44. 

Heavy OUs as Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines, I. C. Allen, 
Technical Paper, No. 37, 1913, Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 
Gov. Printing Office, Washington (describes the merits of the Diesel 
type of engine and the use of heavy oils as engine fuel). 

Pumps and Hydraulics, W. Rogers, 1905, New York, 

Pumping by Compressed Air, E. M. Ivens, 1914, New York. 

Most Economical Pumping Engines, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Bridge and 
Building Assn., 1911, pp. 113-115. 

Long Pipe Lines, ibid., 1912, pp. 115-142. 



CHAPTER XII 
FUEL STATIONS 

This is a subject of considerable operating as well as engi- 
neering importance, but one which it is hard to reduce to defi- 
nite rules on account of the varying conditions at different 
localities. Within certain limits, however, general rules can be 
given for the selection of proper types. 

When the quantity of coal used is small and in particular 
at less important terminals w^here an engine lays over night and 
the night watchman does the coaling, a good arrangement is to 
coal directly from the cars to the tender. The coal cars are 
placed on a side track, slightly elevated, and so located that the 
watchman can easily shovel the coal into the tender. 

93. Platforms. — If a greater number of engines are to be 
handled, or if the engines have to take most of the coal during 
the daytime, when they are in continuous service, a platform is 
built with either a hand or air derrick operating a small bucket 
of about one ton capacity, as shown in Fig. 142. This arrange- 
ment may be used to advantage for handling about 1000 to 1500 
tons a month. 

94. Docks. — Before the invention and general use of elevating 
machinery for large coaling stations, coal chutes were employed 
in which the coal was unloaded by hand from the cars into 
storage pockets; from the pockets it was run into the tenders of 
the locomotives as occasion required. These chutes (Fig. 143A) 
consisted of an elevated track about 19 or 20 ft. above the level 
of the engine tracks with an inclined trestle approach of 5 per cent, 
up which the coal cars were pushed by a switch engine. On 
each side of this elevated track were located a row of pockets, 

260 



FUEL STATIONS 



261 



having inclined bottoms. The coal was stored in these pockets, 
each of which had a gate for delivering the coal to the engine 
tenders. The principal objection to this type is the high cost 
of handling the coal, which must be shoveled out of the cars by- 
hand at an expense of from 10 to 15 cents per ton. 

With the introduction of bottom-dumping cars, similar in 
design to the ballast car shown in Fig. 1055, a new type of 
coaling station was developed with a view of eliminating the 
manual handling of the coal from the cars to the pockets. 

^'Main Track 



Main or Engine Tracl<- 



Pneumatic Crane 
Operated by Air 





- ^'i. 'T^ /^ v y^/? ; ; ^?;^^'^^ 



Cross Section 



Fig. 142.— Coaling Platform, 



This chute (Fig. 1435), as in the type which preceded it, had 
an elevated track reached by an inclined trestle approach, but 
the bins or coal pockets were located below the track and the 
coal was dumped into these, j&Hing them by gravity. The 
elevated track in this case was considerably higher than in the 
old coal chute, and as 5 per cent was about the maximum grade 
up which cars could be pushed by the switch engine, the long 
trestle approach required a great deal of space. 

To overcome this objection the approach was sometimes built 
with a 25 per cent grade and a small dummy car used to pull 
the cars of coal up to the unloading track. This dummy car 
would recede into a pit at the foot of the approach and when the 



262 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



cars were placed ready to be brought up, the dummy would be 
pulled up back of them by a cable attached to a hoisting drum 
at the head of the trestle and take the cars up the grade. 

95. Clam Shells. — Fig. 144 illustrates a Dodge standard-gauge 
steam-operated revolving locomotive crane arranged for handling 
ashes and coal. The portability of the crane permits a ready 
change to another coaling point in the yard, or to an entirely 
different city on the Une if desired. Sometimes the coal is handled 
directly from the cars to the engine by the clam shell. 



l^^i^ 







m^^^ 



^ 



m 



^ 



¥ 



W 



S 



M 



=^ 



M 



H 






A. Cars Unloaded by Hand. B. Cars Unloaded by Gravity 

Fig. 143.— Coal Docks. 



96. Mechanical Plants. — At terminals the space available is 
generally limited, or is so valuable that room cannot be had for 
the construction of a plant of the trestle type. Modern large 
coaling plants, therefore, are built so that the coal is elevated 
by machinery, although in some cases a locomotive crane is 
employed, as shown above, which loads directly from the cars to 
the tender. 

The mechanical plants elevate the coal from a receiving 
hopper below the track by means of balanced buckets, or by a 
continuous elevator consisting of a series of small buckets. Fig. 
145 illustrates a^'station using two balanced buckets to elevate 



FUEL STATIONS 



263 



the coal. These plants are generally built of wood, although of 
recent years steel and also concrete stations have been constructed. 
It is very doubtful whether the extra expense of the concrete as 
compared to wood construction is entirely warranted for this 
purpose. The operating conditions change so rapidly on a rail- 




FiG. 144.- Clam Shell. 



road that it is quite difficult and, in fact, almost impossible to 
forecast with any degree of accuracy what will be the require- 
ments forty or fifty years hence. In many cases, even with the 
shorter-lived wooden station, it is necessary to take it down 
while still good for several years, on account of changed condi- 
tions which will not permit of its operation in the locality where 
it stands. 



264 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



Fig. 146 presents examples of modern coaling stations. Figs. 
146A and B are Holmen balanced bucket plants. A is a view 
of the same station that is shown in Fig. 145 and illustrates the 
use of concrete encased steel substructure with a frame coal 
pocket. The storage capacity is 500 tons and the elevating 
capacity 125 tons per hour. Steam power is used. The station 



Shfe Roof 
/a Roof Boards 



Slate Roof on 
I4 Roof Boards-., 




^' JO' high 



% 'Automatic 
Feeder 



Fig. 145. — Holmen Balanced Bucket Coaling Station. 



is located on the C. C. C. and St. L. Ry., at Greensburg, Ind. 
Fig. 1465 is a side view of a 100-ton steel station on the E. J. 
and E. Ry., at Waukegan, 111. 

Fig. 146C is a reinforced-concrete locomotive coaling station 
built by the Dodge Company for the Norfolk and Western Rail- 
way at Hayesville, Ohio. This is an 880-ton pocket, with sand- 



FUEL STATIONS 



265 




A. Wood. (Holmen.) 



B, Steel. (Holmen.) 




C, Concrete. (Link Belt.) 
Fig. 146. — Examples of Coaling Stations. 



266 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

drying house, boiler-house and small overhead dry sand bin. 
The pocket is built over five tracks in three spans, two of which 
are main line tracks, two passing sidings, and one a coal-dumping 
track. 

Records of the cost of handling coal at coaling plants on 
different roads vary widely on account of the methods employed 
in collecting figures. The operating cost of handling coal where 
self-cleaning cars are used should not exceed $.05 per ton, and 
may run considerably less than this under favorable conditions, 
many roads reporting less than $.03 per ton operating charges. 

The use of weighing apparatus to determine the amount of 
coal delivered to each engine is not generally considered necessary, 
and many managers feel that the cost of equipping the stations 
with scales is not justified. 

The self-cleaning cars used at mechanical plants during the 
winter months are very expensive to unload on account of the 
coal becoming frozen. To obviate this difficulty thawing plants, 
which consist of suitable insulated buildings containing one or 
more tracks, are used by some roads. The cars are run into 
these and the frozen coal is thawed out. The car is then taken 
to the coaling station and dumped. The record of the South 
Amboy thawing plant on the Pennsylvania (shown in Fig. 147) 
appears to justify fully the expense of the installation, owing to 
the cheap cost of unloading the coal in winter. 

97. Storage of Coal. — In times of approaching scarcity of coal 
it is necessary to store sufficient amounts on the ground at con- 
venient points to insure a continuous supply for the operation of 
the road. This is generally done by unloading the coal with a 
clam shell and picking it up when needed with a clam shell or 
steam shovel, loading it into cars and sending these to the different 
plants. On account of the large amounts of coal required by a 
railroad there has been a growing tendency on the part of the 
larger roads to establish storage grounds with permanent 
machinery for handUng the coal, although the general practice 
at the present time is to use temporary storage near where the coal 
is to be used rather than have a permanent storage plant located 
at some central distributing point. 



FUEL STATIONS 



267 



Fig. 148 shows the usual method employed for the temporary 
storage of coal on roads not equipped with permanent storage 
plants. The crane in the figure is the same as shown in Fig. 144, 
and is used for this purpose as well as coaling engines. 

Fig. 149 shows the Dodge System of coal storage. The plant 
illustrated in the view is installed for the Susquehanna Coal Co., 
at Old Bridge, N. J., and has a capacity of 210,000 tons, in four- 




Tracks to be located to provide 
for Homse over I dcZ later 



Blower House 



SIDE ELEVATIOM 




8k& 



-15-5- 



-15-10 
6x6' . . 8x8 



Grariulafed Cork 



^''^^^^^^^^^■^yT^?^^ 



SECTION A-A 



^--15-2-- 
! 

J5-I0 -^ 



J^^rjTr' Wihmm>T/m>) '"nrm^ rrrP^ ^>»un»Ti/7 > ^ ^^r77j^^^^m> ^ ^(^ . 



Return Duct 

Hot Air 



. _ rw 


8-x 


8- 


2x6- 


:§ 




^ 






6x6" 



SECTIOH B-B 



SEtTIOMAL PLAM OF TWO BAYS 



Fig. 147. — South Amboy Thawing Plant, Pennsylvania Railroad. 



teen piles, located on both sides of a central track system. The 
view of the reloader shows the operator at the pivot about 
which the reloader revolves as it takes coal from the pile. The 
incHne for taking coal to the tower for screening and delivery to 
cars appears at the operator's left. The photograph of the re- 
loading tower shows the shaking screen, dehvery chute to the 
cars and receiving bin for screenings. 

'As the railroads consume about one-fourth of all the coal 
mined and as their interest is not only that of a consumer but 



268 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



of the carrier, the problem of equalizing the demand on the 

mines may well receive attention. 

The losses of coal exposed to the weather is not as great as 
is conimonl}' supposed. In their conclusions from tests on the 
weathering of coal Prof. S. W. Parr and W. F. Wheeler state:* 

Coal of the type found in Illinois and neighboring States is not 
affected seriously dui'ing storage when only the change in weight and losses 
in heating power are considered. The changes in weight maj^ be either 




Fig. 148. — Storing Coal with Clam Shell. (Dodge.) 



gains or losses of prol^al^ly never over 2 per cent in a period of one 
year. The heating value decreases most rapidly during the fii-st week 
after mining and continues to decrease more and more slowl3' for an 
indefinite time. In the coals that have been tested, 1 per cent is 
about the average loss for the first week and 3 to 3^ i>er cent would 
cover the losses for a year. 

It should be observed, however, that bituminous coal will 
sack badh^ when exposed to the weather for periods exceeding 
two months. Apparently there is little danger from spontaneous 
combustion if the coal is in small piles, but in large units care 

* Bulletin No. 38, Universit}' of lUinois, Eng. Exp. Station, 1909. 



FUEL STATIONS 



269 





Fig. 149. — Dodge System of Coal Storage. 



270 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

should be used to avoid heating. On the Central of Georgia 
with bituminous coal of a fairly hard grade the storage piles are 
about 15 ft. high, and no trouble from spontaneous combustion 
is experienced. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Mechanical Coaling Stations, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Bridge and 
Building Assn., 19U, pp. 155-165. 

Modern Locomotive Coaling Station, Design, Construction, Opera- 
tion and Maintenance, Proceedings, International Railway Fuel Assn., 
1914, pp. 166-184. 

Freight Terminals and Trains, J. A. Droege, 1912, New York, pp. 
412-432. 

Railroad Structures and Estimates, J. W. Orrock, 1909, New York, 
pp. 144-156. 

Buildings and Structures of American Railroads, W. G. Berg, 1900, 
New York, pp. 130-165. 

Storage of Coal, C. G. Hall, Proceedings, International Ry. Fuel 
Assn., 1914, pp. 109-152. 

The Weathering of Coal, S. W. Parr and W. F. Wheeler, University 
of Illinois Engineering Experimental Station, Bulletin No. 38, 1909, 
(contains tests on calorific loss of coal in storage). 

The Spontaneous Combustion of Coal, S. W. Parr and F. W. Kress- 
mann, ihid.. Bulletin No. 46, 1911. 

Deterioration and Spontaneous Heating of Coal in Storage, H. C. 
Porter and F. K. Ovitz, Technical Paper No. 16, 1912, Dept. of the 
Interior, Bureau of Mines, Government Printing Office, Washington. 



CHAPTER XIII 

SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 

98. Roundhouses. — In general a circular form of house with 
a turn-table in the center of the circle is to be preferred. A 
good arrangement is shown in Fig. 1505 of the Michigan Central 
house. 




View of Round House under Construction. 
Fig. 150. — Round Houses. 



This section is sometimes modified by having the roof slope 
toward the turn-table; this, however, drains the water toward 
the inner circle, which is an objectionable feature, as the roof 
gutters may freeze up and the water instead of being carried off 
will overflow where the engines enter the house. 

The details of construction are of considerable importance, 
and for the purpose of discussing these we may consider the 
roundhouse to be divided into: 1, foundations and pits; 2, the 

271 



272 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




m 

=3 
O 

w 

13 
O 

OP 

O 
1=1 

o3 
o 



bfl 
O 



o 



o 

I— I 



.f^,^? 



SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 



273 



roof; and 3, the walls, which will be considered in the order 
named. 

For the foundations and pits concrete is generally used, and 
if it is necessary to employ a deep foundation to get solid ground 
the concrete may profitably be reinforced. 



Ventilator 



' Roof Collar 




C. Smoke Jack. (Dickinson.) 
Fig. 150. — Round Houses. 



Steel, on account of the corrosion of this material, due to 
the engine gases, should not be used in the roof unless protected 
by concrete. Many engineers prefer the reinforced concrete roof 
to the wood roof on account of the fireproof construction 
obtained. 

As much window space as possible should be allowed in the 



274 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

walls. This leaves very little space to fill in except between the 
window sill and the floor. Brick or concrete is generally used 
for the walls, although in a wooden house the walls may be 
built of wood. The end walls and fire walls are usually built 
of the same material as used for the outer walls. 

The American Railway Engineering Association recommends 
the following: * 

(a) The material used in construction should be non-corrosive, 
unless proper care be taken to prevent corrosion. 

(6) Reinforced concrete should be used below the floor when it is 
cheaper than plain concrete. 

(c) The additional security against interruption to traffic from 
fire warrants the serious consideration of the use of a reinforced con- 
crete roof. 

(d) When the roof is of reinforced concrete the columns should be 
of the same material. 

(e) Reinforced concrete should be used for the waUs only where special 
conditions reduce its cost considerably below that of brick or plain con- 
crete. 

On account of the large amount of smoke from the engines 
in the house, special provision has to be made to carry it to the 
outside air. This is done by placing a smoke jack (Fig. 150C) 
in each stall, located so that the stack of the locomotive will 
come directly underneath the jack and very little of the smoke 
will escape into the house. These jacks were formerly made of 
wood, but on account of the danger from fire are now generally 
of cast iron or some special material such as transite (an asbestos 
compound) which will not catch fire from the sparks coming from 
the engine. 

99. Heating Plants. — In the heating of roundhouses, either 
indirect hot-air heating, the low-pressure vacuum process of 
steam heating or heating with high-pressure steam radiators is 
employed. 

When direct radiation is employed, either low or high pres- 
sure, the coils are placed in the pits underneath the engines and 
along the outside walls of the house. 

♦Manual, 1911, p. 119. 



SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 



275 



In indirect heating or by means of air heated by passing over 
steam coils, the hot air is forced by a fan through ducts under 
the floor of the house with an outlet generally located in each pit. 

There is a^great deal of difference of opinion as to the relative 




A = Air Chamber. 

6= Tile Branches Dis- 
charging info Pit 

C= Opening for Recircu- 
lating Air. 

D= Main Underground 
Hot Air Duct 




E = Engine . 
/^= I^an. 
a- Heater. 
K = Ga/v. iron 
f^iser. 



Fig. 151.— Arrangement of Indirect Radiation Heating System. 

Blower Co.^ 



(Am. 



merits of the direct and indirect methods of heating, and both 
are used extensively. 

■.•^ Fig. 151 shows the arrangement of ducts, heating coils, fan, 
etc., in a round house using indirect heating. The advocates of 
this system claim that much better ventilation is obtained, but 
it must be remembered that the air forced in through the air 



276 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

ducts is not all fresh air but is mostly recirculated, and also 
that the natural circulation of air in the round house is quite 
rapid on account of the many openings required to carry off the 
smoke. 

100. Turntables. — Fig. 152 shows an example of a turntable. 
The tractor by which the turntable is operated is shown to the 
left in Fig. 152A. Formerly all tables were turned by meanB of 
a long pole extending beyond the table which was pushed by a 
number of men, but with the introduction of heavier engines 
this became so difficult that air and electrical tractors are now 
used in nearly all cases. The air tractor, which is operated from 
the air pump of the locomotive standing on the turntable, is 
show^n in Fig. 1525. Turntables have increased in length very 
rapidly in the last few years to keep pace with the longer engines 
which they are required to carry and are now made 100 ft. long. 

The Committee on turntables of the American Railway Bridge 
and Building Association recommends that for standard gauge 
roads no future turntable be built shorter than 75 ft. and that 
for roads that expect to use the heaviest engines, 90 ft. be adopted 
as standard. For engines having wheel bases longer than 90 ft. 
wye tracks should be provided unless special local conditions 
compel the use and justify the expense of a longer table. 

The Santa Fe does not turn its long Mallet engines on a turn- 
table. Mr. A. F. Robinson, bridge engineer of the system, 
states that he is '^ not in favor of building extremely long turn- 
tables, that is, long enough to handle our double Mallet Santa 
Fe engine; a table to do this would have to be about 135 ft. in 
diameter. These can be built and operated successfully; the 
cost of repair and operation, however, would, in the writer's 
judgment, be high.'' * 

The deck-plate girder type appears to be the most used 
where the necessary drainage can be obtained from the turn- 
table pit, but when a shallow pit is required through-plate 
girders, or pony trusses, are employed. The advantage of using 
through tables to raise the bottom of the pit is indicated by 

* Turntables, Proceedings Am. Ry. Bridge and Building Assn., 1912, 
P.J49. 



SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 



277 



comparing the Pennsylvania 100-ft. deck turntable in which the 
depth from base of rail to top of catch basin is 11 ft. 2 ins. with 
the Norfolk and Western 100-ft. through turntable in which the 
depth is only 7 ft. 6 ins. 




A. General View. 




B. Air Tractor. (Detroit Hoist and Mach. Co.) 
Fig. 152.— Turntable. 



The proper condition of a table depends largely upon the 
center upon which the table turns. A center composed of 
conical rollers is generally used, although many prominent 
roads use a disc center. The disc center represents the best 



278 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



practice in draw-bridge design. The Burlington appears strongly 
to favor this type for their turntables, and a committee of the 
New York Central Lines which investigated the matter of 
centers recommended the use of disc centers. 

101. Cinder Pits. — Before the engine enters the house the 
fire is drawn; this is done over a cinder pit, and the handhng of 
the ashes from the fire is a matter of considerable importance. 




Fig. 153. — Depressed Cinder Pit. 

Until quite recently the most approved form of cinder pit 
was the depressed track shown in Fig. 153. A standard gauge 
track was located at the bottom of the pit and gondola cars 
were placed at the end of this track opposite the place where 
the ashes were dumped from the engines. The ashes were loaded 
into the car by hand. 

An excellent type of mechanical cinder loader is shown in 
Fig. 1544 . This consists of a small dummy car which is lowered 



SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 



279 



in a pit below the fire box of the engine and when full of ashes 
is hauled up a light steel track by a cable attached to an air 
plunger and unloads automatically into a car standing on an 
adjacent track to receive the ashes. 

The automatic cinder pit, it will be observed, does away 
entirely with the depressed track for the gondola, and enables 




A . Robertson Cinder Conveyor. 
Fig. 154. — Mechanical Cinder Plants. 



the empty car to be spotted to receive the cinders by means of a 
pinch bar and without waiting for a switch to be made. 

To handle ashes from the pit a gantry crane carrying an 
electrically operated grab bucket has been used on some roads; 
(see Fig. 154jB.) Locomotive cranes are used in a somewhat 
similar manner. 



280 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



102. Sand Houses.— Sand houses are provided at engine 
terminals to supply engines with sand. These are generally 
small wooden houses consisting of storage bins for the wet sand, 
a stove or steam pipes for drying the sand, means for elevating the 
sand by compressed air or hoisting mechanism and an elevated 
bin for the dry sand from which it flows to the engine through a 
spout. The sand house is usually located near and frequently 




B. Gantry Crane at Gary, Ind., C. L. S. & E. Ry. (Am. Ry, B. & B. Assn.) 
Fig. 154.— Mecbanical Cinder Plants. 

forms a part of the coaling plant, so the engines can take sand at 
the same time they are taking coal. 

Fig. 155 shows an elevated tank for sand when the ap- 
paratus does not form part of the coaUng-station building. The 
view shows as well the valve for controlling the flow of sand to 
the engine, the pneumatic sand hoist and the sand dryer. The 
sand tank is about 25 ft. above the track and the dry sand is 



SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 



281 



elevated into the tank through a 3-inch supply pipe. The sand 
dryer, which is a cast-iron stove surrounded with a perforated 
screen, has a capacity of from 10 to 20 cu.yds. per day. 




SAMDTAhK SAND DRYER 

Fig. 155. — Sand Handling Apparatus. (Robertson.) 

103. Shops. — Railroad shops are generally located at the 
divisional terminal point to take care of the local requirements, 
with the concentration, however, of all heavy repairs to equip- 



282 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

ment both of cars and locomotives at a large central plant for 

the entire system, or for each grand di\dsion. 

At the central plant the shop system may be di\4ded into the 
following general classification: 
Locomotive shops; 
Freight-car shops; 
Passenger-car shops. 

These are supplemented by the blacksmith shop, boiler 
shop, foundry, planing mill, paint shop, store house and power 
plant. 

The track layout may consist of cross tracks or longitudinal 
tracks running the length of the house. 

In Fig. loQA the locomotive and boiler shops are served from 
a transfer table and the freight-car shop has longitudinal 
tracks running the length of the shop.* The locomotive erecting 
shop is generally provided with an overhead traveling crane. 

The use of cross tracks in connection ^nth a heavy crane 
for traversing the locomotives is shown in Fig. 1565, which 
illustrates the Collinwood shops of the Lake Shore. The loco- 
motives are turned on a turntable and enter the house on the 
center cross track from which they are handled by a traveling 
crane to the desired location. 

It seems that for a di\asion repair shop or general repair 
shop of a small road, the transfer table is generall}' preferred for 
a cross-erecting shop in connection with a hght overhead crane, 
but at large shops the engines in most cases are transferred 
inside the building by a heavy overhead travehng crane. Recent 
practice, both in this country and abroad, appears to favor the 
cross shop rather than the longitudinal. 

In the power house are located the boilers for heating the 
shops, the air compressors and the generators for supplying the 
electric current used for Hghting and to operate the machinery 
in the different shops. The most modern practice is to use group 
drive, except in case of large machines, which are pro\4ded 
with separate motors. 

* American Railway Shop Systems, W. G. Berg, 1904. The Railroad 
Gazette, New York, pp. 120, 142. 



SHOPS AND ENGINE HOUSES 



283 



The shop buildings are one-story structures and may be built 
of either mill construction, structural steel or concrete. In their 
design careful attention should be given to the question of pro- 



20 stall Round Hquse 

Depressed P/f 




Machine 8c Erecfing 



Truck. Tank CtBoileir 



A. New York Central Shops, Oak Grove, Pa. 




Passenger Car 
Repairs 



Freight Yard ?.Qpa\r 



B. Lake Shore Shops, CoUinwood, Ohio. 
Fig. 156. — Layouts. (Berg.) 

viding sufficient light, and saw-tooth roof construction should 
be used where practicable. Ample window space should be pro- 
vided in the walls. 



284 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

The floors in the blacksmith shop and foundry should be of 
cinders and in the other shops of wood, either planks on con- 
crete or creosote block. The heating is generally by hot air, 
although in some plants hot water or steam is employed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Engine House Design, Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. Manual, 1911, pp. 117- 
122. 

Freight Terminals and Trains, J. A. Droege, 1912, New York, pp. 
387-411. 

Buildings and Structures of American Railroads, W. G. Berg, 1900, 
New York (Round Houses, pp. 166-201; Cinder Pits, pp. 51-59; Sand 
Houses, pp. 71-80). 

Turntables, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Bridge and Building Assn., 1912, 
pp. 143-214. 

Sand Plants, American Railway Bridges and Buildings, W. G. Berg, 
1898, Chicago, pp. 239-316. 

Shops 

American Railway' Shop Systems, W. G. Berg, 1904, New York. 
Railway Shop Up to Date,*^ :\I. H. Haig, 1907, New York. 



CHAPTER XIV 
ICING STATIONS 

104. Harvesting Natural Ice. — In cutting the ice the field is 
plowed with a special plow (Fig. 157) which cuts grooves in the 
ice about 22 ins. apart so as to divide the ice into squares 22 
by 22 ins. The ice is broken up into cakes by sawing through 
the ends of a strip about 40 ft. long and adjacent to the clear 
water. The strip is then broken away from the remaining 
ice along the plowed grooves and floated down to the conveyor, 
Fig. 158, where a few strokes of the bars or spuds is sufficient to 
separate it into square cakes. 

The convej^or handles the ice directly to the house, if it is 
located at the water, or onto a platform for loading into cars. 

The ice may be fed straight into the end of the machine 
or the channel may be arranged for side feed, as shown in the 
illustration, Fig. 158A. The cakes are floated through the chan- 
nel into the water box where the ascending bars engage the 
blocks from below, carry them up the inchne and onto and 
along the adjustable gallery passing the room doors. At each 
door a man upon the gallery removes a certain number of cakes 
from the chain to the house run. As the house is filled the 
gallery is correspondingly raised by means of gallery hoists and 
at the end of the harvesting season the platform is at the top 
and remains in this position during the summer, leaving the 
front of the house free for the use of lowering machines to take 
the ice out of the rooms. 

Fig. 1585 shows a loading conveyor, which, as its name 
implies, is used where ice is taken direct from the water and 
transported some distance by rail to a house more or less remote 
from the source of supply. The blocks of ice, as shown in the 

285 



286 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




Plow with Swino: Guide. 





Hand Plow. 



Splitting Bar. 





Fig. 157.— Ice-cutting Tools. (Giiford-^Yood.) 



ICING STATIONS 



287 



illustration, are forced straight into the apron of the machine 
and are caught by the bars and pass along the apron and up 
the incline to the car-loading platform. 

The length of the car-loading platform is determined by the 
number of cars it is desired to load without switching. To 




A, Elevator Conveyor. (Caldwell.^ 




P. Car I oader Conveyor. (Caldwell.) 
Fig. 158. — Harvesting Ice. 

facilitate the work the platform is generally placed between two 
side tracks, so that the loaded cars on one side may be pulled 
out and replaced by empties while the loaders are filling those on 
the'other track. 



288 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

105. Manufacture of Ice. — Generally speaking, the manu- 
facture of ice at the icing station is not an economic proposition 
except in those locahties where natural ice is not available in 
sufficient quantities. In the Northern States it costs only about 
SO. 75 a ton to put the ice in the house, and even under the most 
favorable conditions ice cannot be manufactured for less than 
SI. 25 to 81.50 per ton including all the charges at the plant. 

The cost of manufacturing ice with electric drive in a 20-ton 
plant is about 81.40 per ton, assmning the plant to run 2-1 hours 
per da}^ and 300 days per year, or 6000 tons per aimum. The 
following estimate is given by Orrock : "^ 

Approximate cost of installation: 

^Machine shop and ice house 84,000.00 

Foundations 500.00 

Water pipes and connections 500.00 

]\Iotor, compressors, condenser, ice tank with 
cans, coils, ice lift, etc., including insulation 
and all connections, erected complete 19,533.00 

824,533.00 

Distilling apparatus, if steam can be furnished. . . . 2,500.00 

$27,033.00 
Super\asion and contingencies, 10 per cent 2,767.00 

829,800.00 

Approximate cost of operating electric plant : 

829,800.00 at 6 per cent 81,788.00 

Electric power, 60 H.P. at .840 per year 2,400.00 

2 engineers at 82.50 85.00 

2 ice men at 82.00 4.00 

Oil and waste 1.00 

Depreciation, repairs and inci- 
dentals 4.00 

814.00X300 day s 4.200.00 

Total 88,388.00 

or SI. 40 per ton. 

* Railroad Structures and Estimates, p. 139. 



ICING STATIONS 289 

It should be observed that in comparing this price with the 
cost of natural ice, something should be allowed for the greater 
storage space required, and the loss due to shrinkage when 
natural ice is used. 

Where electrical energy is cheap or if gas or oil engines are 
employed, raw water or a combination of raw and distilled water 
is used for making the ice. Where raw water is used, agitation 
of the water must be secured, which is usually done by stirring, 
or the injection of compressed air at low pressure. 

106. Insulation. — It is evident that the function of an ice 
house is to prevent the outside heat in summer from passing into 
the interior of the house and melting the ice. The problem, 
therefore, is to interpose in the walls a material or a construction 
which will diminish the passage of heat, not necessarily to a 
minimum, but in such a degree that the sum of the fixed charges 
and the direct loss due to meltage results in the smallest amount 
for the given locality. 

The selection of the proper construction in any case depends 
then upon: 

1. The cost of the ice; 

2. The temperatures encountered; 

3. The cost of the insulation, and 

4. The amount of heat it will admit into the house. 

It is very apparent that a form of construction that would 
be economical for one of the Pacific Fruit Express Company^s 
houses in California, where the first cost of ice is high, and the 
temperature in the summer often averages 120 degrees through- 
out seven or eight hours of the day, would prove undesirable 
for use under conditions affecting the ice houses in Michigan. 

The cost of the ice and of the construction to be used for 
the house can be accurately calculated for any case under con- 
sideration. The average temperature outside of the ice house 
can be readily obtained from consulting the weather reports. 
It is, however, in determining the insulating value of the material 
or construction to be used that we find the greatest difficulty. 

A great many tests have been made on insulating material, 
but before attempting to apply the results obtained from these 



290 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



tests it will be necessary first to review the general principles 
affecting the transmission of heat through ice-house insulation. 

Fig. 159 shows a section of wall composed of only one material, 
as a brick wall. If the house is filled with ice we will find. during 
the summer months a continuous flow of heat from the outside 
of the wall to the inside. The inner surface of the wall will 
be warmer than the air within the house on account of the 
difficulty the heat finds in leaving this surface. 

Heat is taken from the wall on the inside of the house in two 
ways: by radiation and by air contact. The radiated heat 

travels through the air with very little heat- 
ing, but the heat lost by air contact or 
convection actually heats the air next the 
surface. The reverse of this condition apphes 
to the outer wall surface. This surface is 
cooler than the outside air and absorbs the 
heat by radiation and by contact with the 
warm air. In the case of the outer wall a 
descending current of air is found, but on 
the inner surface the current of air ascends. 
Within the wall the heat passes uni- 
formly from one surface to the other, due to 
the conductivity of the material of which the wall is composed. 
We may assume that the radiation is proportional to the 
difference of temperature existing in the wall and the objects 
radiated to. Table XVIII gives this value for different materials. 
In the Table, K represents the B.T.U. radiated per hour per 
square foot per one degree difference of temperature between 
the temperature of the surface and the temperature of the objects 
radiated to. 

TABLE XVIII 

Radiation of Heat 

Values of K for Different Surfaces 
(P6clet, Traits de la Chaleur) 




Fig. 159.— Flow of Heat 

through Simple Wall. 

(After Paulding.) 



Oil paint 759 

Paper 772 

Building stone 737 



Plaster and brick. 

Wood 

Sheet iron 



.737 
.737 
.567 



ICING STATIONS 291 

For example, a painted inner wall, which is 3 degrees cooler 
than the object radiating heat to it, would absorb 3 X. 759 = 2.28 
B.T.U. per hour a square foot. 

Table XIX shows the loss of heat from air contact. This 
is the same for different materials, but varies with the difference 
in temperature between the material of the wall and the sur- 
rounding air and with the heat of the wall. For example, if the 
wall is 30 ft. high and the difference in temperature between the 
wall and the air is 3 degrees, then the heat absorbed per square 
foot per hour would be .27X3 = .81 B.T.U. 

TABLE XIX 

Loss OF Heat from Air Contact 

Values of K' for a Plane Vertical Wall in B.T.U. per hour per square 
foot per one degree difference of temperature of wall-surface and sur- 
rounding air. 

Height of Wall in Feet. Value of K' , 



1 


.40 


2 


.35 


4 


.32 


8 


.30 


16 


.28 


32 


.27 


64 


.26 



The quantity of the heat transmitted through the insulation 
from outer surface to inner surface varies directly as the area 
of the wall, directly as the conductivity of the material, inversely 
as its thickness, and directly as the difference of temperature 
between the two surfaces. 

The formula for an area of 1 sq.ft. of a homogeneous wall 
with plane parallel surfaces is then * 

E ' 

*For derivation of formulae see Paulding's treatise, Transmission of 
Heat through Cold-Storage Insulation, 1905, D. Van Nostrand, New York. 



292 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

in which 

• ilf = B.T.U. transmitted per hour per 1 sq.ft.; 

C = The conductivity of the wall as given in the following 

table; 
£' = The thickness of the wall in inches; 
t = Th.e temperature of the outer wall-surface; 
^' = The temperature of the inner wall-surface. 

The conductivity, designated by C, is the quantity of heat 
that would traverse in one hour a plate of the given material 
1 sq.ft. in area, 1 in. thick and with its surfaces maintained at 
temperatures differing b}^ 1 degree. 

In Table XX are given the values of C for a number of 
materials as determined by Peclet, Starr and others. 

TABLE XX 

Values of C — Conductivity of Different Materials 

In B.T.U. transmitted per hour per square foot for 1 in. in thickness, 
for one degree difference of surface temperatures. 

Limestone 16.8 to 10.2 

Brick 5.56 to 4.11 

Sand 2.18 

Fir (wood) perpendicular to fibers 75 

Fir (wood) parallel to fibers 1.37 

Walnut, perpendicular to fibers 86 

Walnut, parallel to fibers 1.40 

Oak, perpendicular to fibers 1.70 

Cork 50* 

Mahogany sawdust 52 

White writing paper 35 

Gray blotting paper 27 

American spruce 93 

Mineral wool 69 to .82 

Mill-shavings 65 

Hair-felt 32 

Lith 25 

Linofelt 30 est. 

* Prof. Norton's tests show .27 for cork sheets. 



ICING STATIONS 293 

The formula for the homogeneous wall shown in Fig. 159 is 



2C+QE ' ^^ 



in which 



M = B.T.U. transmitted per hour per 1 sq.ft.; 
C = The conductivity of material; 
Q=K+K'; 

E = The thickness of the wall in inches; 
7 = The temperature of the outer air; 
T" = The temperature of the inner air. 

In finding Q it is best to take for K and K^ averages of the 
values appropriate for the inner and outer walls, where, as 
generally happens, these values are different. 

The formula for the compound wall shown in Fig. 160 is 

j^^_Q(r-Ti_ p) 

and for a wall made up of any number of layers of different 
materials we would have 

M= ,„ «^-£> , .... (3) 



^+«(i+f +P+ ■■••)■ 



in which 

Tlf = B.T.U. transmitted per hour per 1 sq.ft.; 
C, C\ C = The respective conductivities of the different 
layers; 
Q = K+K^; 
Ej E\ £^" = The respective thickness in inches of the different 
layers; 
r = The temperature of the outer air; 
T' = The temperature of the inner air. 



294 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



For an example take the wall shown in Fig. 161. This con- 
sists of an outer layer of |-in. tongued-and-grooved spruce sheath- 
ing (conductivity .93), then a layer of waterproof paper about 
.03 in. thick (conductivity .27), then 1| ins. of hair-felt (con- 
ductivit}^ .32), then paper, spruce, paper, hair-felt, paper, spruce 
and galvanized iron. 

On account of the ease with which it transmits heat, we may 
pay no attention to the galvanized iron, except to choose a value 
of K midway between that due to the iron (.57) and that due 
to the outer painted surface (.76). 




Fig. 160.— Flow of Heat 

through Composite Wall. 

(After Paulding.) 



Paper/ 



m 



^Xl:^'Hair)Feim 



^^•'^-^^"^t'""^ ^^•" Q Spruce 



f^per::A^ <X' '':XilHairFb[t})i 



K- ^ Spruce 



^^'Qalv. Iron 

Fig. 161. — Wall Composed of Boards 
and Hair Insulation. 
(After Paulding.) 



Let US suppose the height of the wall to be 10 ft. Then 
Q = .30+K.57+.76) = .97. 

Let the temperature of the outer air be 90 degrees and that 
of the inner 20 degrees. Then by formula (3) we have 



M = 



.97(90-20) 



2+ 



-h^ 



.27 .32j 



= 4.8. 



The formula for a wall containing air spaces is as follows : 

Q(T-T') 



M = 



^+4f +^+f +^P+ ■ 



(4) 



ICING STATIONS 295 

For the notations see equation (3). 

As a numerical example we may suppose in Fig. 161 the 
hair-felt to be removed, leaving two air-spaces, but all other 
conditions of the example remaining unchanged. In the formula 
then we drop out the term representing the hair-felt and sub- 
stitute the value of -—, which in this case would be 

1 1 



.30+.77 1.07 
and 

M- . .97(90-20) ,.g.7 



2+-«'px^+*xi+^=< 



-^1 

1.07 J 



We have in this case practically doubled the transmission by 
substituting air-spaces for hair-felt. 
Paulding states that : * 

Experiments have repeatedly shown that the thickness of the 
air-space is of no effect for ordinary thicknesses. Taking one inch as 

a practical thickness for ordinary construction, and the value of --, 

lying very near to unity, for a material to be of the same value as the air- 

C 
space, — must equal unity, and for the same thickness, namely one inch, 
hi 

C must equal unity. This is about true for ordinary spruce; for almost 

any of the other materials used in insulation the air-space would be a 

disadvantage in a wall of fixed thickness. Of course an added air-space 

that does not displace any insulating material is always a help, but space 

is frequently too valuable for this construction to be used. 

Mr. G. H. Stoddard has made some interesting experiments 
for the purpose of demonstrating the value of successive air- 
space, f 

* Transmission of Heat through Cold Storage Insulation, C. P. Paulding, 
1905, D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, p. 26. 

t Paper on Insulation, Eleventh Annual Convention of the American 
Warehousemen's Association. See Ice and Refrigeration, November, 1901. 



296 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 






inside of \ 
House [ 

50' F. \ 



^2 



Outside of 
House 
10° F. 



Mr. Stoddard deduces from these experiments that for the 
purpose of insulation 

a T\ide air-space has no greater value than a narrow one, and that any 
space over one-half (J) inch in width, if it can be kept dr}^, will be of 
greater value if filled Tsith an insulating material as good as mill shav- 
ings than if left as an air space. 

The reason that air spaces are not efl&cient methods of insula- 
tion is that while still air will allow very little heat to pass 
through it, it never remains still, but is constantly" in motion 
and thus carries the heat by convection, as shown in Fig. 162. 

It will be seen, therefore, that unless 
the air is confined in ver}^ small spaces 
it loses much of its insulating proper- 
ties. Most of the insulating materials 
now in use are those in which a large 
volume of air is emneshed. 

The first material which was used 
extensivel}' in ice-house insulation was 
sawdust, but this is now generally 
condemned, as its insulating value is 
rapidty lost, due to the absorption of 
moisture. It tends to cause rotting of the wall and under certain 
conditions is liable to spontaneous combustion. 

Planing mill shavings which should be packed about 9 lbs. 
to the cubic foot, are better than sawdust; but the tendency in 
modern ice-house construction is to use a higher grade of insulat- 
ing material. 

Mineral wool is manufactured from silica-bearing limestone 
rock. The broken rock is melted in cupolas at a temperature 
of about 3500° F. and as the molten liquid rock leaves the mouth 
of the cupola it is met by a steam blast which expands it into 
fine silken threads. These threads are blown through oil vapor 
which renders the wool soft and pliable and removes dust and 
shot. Mineral wool resembles bulk cotton in appearance. 

Mineral wool when properly tamped in place weighs 14 lbs. 
to the cubic foot. It is packed in bags containing 50 lbs. 



Fig. 162. — Heat Carried by 
Convection. 



ICING STATIONS 297 

Regranulated cork is a by-product. In the manufacture of 
corkboard, pure granulated cork is slightly compressed and then 
baked in molds of proper shape and size. As the boards come 
from the molds, they are trimmed to accurate dimensions. The 
sawings and trimmings are reduced again to a granulated state 
and the resulting product called regranulated cork. 

Regranulated cork is dark brown in color and is manufactured 
in two grades, known as fine regranulated and coarse regranu- 
lated, respectively. Since it is a by-product, it cannot .be 
supplied in unlimited quantities, although generally a stock 
sufficient to fill an ordinary order is available. Fine regranulated 
cork, when properly tarhped, weighs approximately 7J lbs. to the 
cubic foot. The size of the granules ranges from about a half 
a wheat grain to very fine. 

Coarse regranulated cork, properly tamped, weighs approxi- 
mately 6| lbs. to the cubic foot. The size of the granules ranges 
from a small pea to a wheat grain. 

Both coarse and fine regranulated cork are packed in bags 
holding from 40 to 50 lbs. 

Granulated cork is cut from raw cork stock and can be fur- 
nished in almost any size. The size general^ used is called 
unscreened granulated. The granules vary in size from J in. in 
in diameter to fine. The difference in the size of granules causes 
this size to pack well without leaving large air voids. 

Hair is used extensively for insulating purposes; this is in 
the form of a quilt J or ^ in. in thickness with a layer of water- 
proof paper on either side. Linofelt, composed of ffax fiber, 
is also used in the same manner. 

Most insulating materials are considerably affected by the 
presence of moisture, and the use of paper in ice-house walls is 
therefore valuable. In addition to preventing the entrance of 
moisture, the paper increases the insulating value of the wall 
by changing the density of the material as many times as pos- 
sible without adding to the thickness of the wall. Professor 
Tyndall has shown that this is an important feature in retard- 
ing the passage of heat. The paper per se has very little to do 
with insulating the wall, but in changing the density of the 



298 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

medium and in keeping out moisture and air it is of prime 
importance. 

Before passing to a consideration of the design of the ice 
house, let us examine the more recent experiments on insulation. 
The most valuable tests are those made on different insulations 
as a whole, and not the filling material alone. In Table XXI 
are presented the results of tests gathered from different author- 
ities. In the last column is given the value of the different 
insulations as calculated by formulae 3 and 4. To anyone 
familiar with the difficulties of tests of this kind the agreement 
between theory and tests will prove quite satisfactory. 

The value as given by tests are reported by Cooper."^ Starr's 
tests were presented in a paper read before the eleventh annual 
convention of the American Warehousemen's Association, in 
October, 1901. The tests of the Nonpariel Cork ]Manufac- 
turing Co. were made with their own apparatus, comparing their 
material for the most part, wath wood board and air-space con- 
struction. Cooper's tests were not made in the interest of any 
particular company, but were for the purpose of determining 
the value of air-space construction as compared with filled spaces 
and sheet material. 

Formulae Nos. 3 and 4 are applicable to floors and ceilings, 
except for the coefficient K^; but it will be observed that the 
carrying of heat by convection, represented by this coefficient, 
while lower for the ceiling than in the case of a vertical wall, is 
obviously much higher for the floor, and it is probable that in 
most cases the average value of K' is not far from that given in 
Table XIX. 

107. Buildings for Storing Ice. — Fig. 163 shows a typical 
construction for a small ice house. Here the roof seems to be 
faulty, inasmuch as there are openings to the outer air direct 
from the space in which ice is stored. This arrangement is 
undesirable, especially if there are any leaks through which air 
can pass around the walls close to the foundation, and these 
leaks are nearly always to be found. 

The result is a slow, but continuous circulation; the cold 

♦Practical Cold Storage, 1914, Nickerson & Collins, Chicago, p. 103. 



ICING STATIONS 



299 



TABLE XXI 

Tests on Different Types of Insulation 

(Results of tests taken from Practical Cold Storage. 



Boards and Paper. 



B.T.U. Transm\lted per sq 
Degree of Difference of 



ft. per Day per 
Temperature. 



Test. 



a 
o 
o 
O 



L 
S- 


+- 



o o 



I 




428 



4,75 



'^^''''^' 



^. 




^ . . , . . . s Boards and 
-l" Air 5 pace. 



W.rrorper. 



3.71 



425 



3.36 



^^p^^^^m^^p:^^ 



^^c<s^^^^~ 



y<^^r''/////////^^ f Boards and 
^y/}/yyyy>>yyyy2>y>yyyy>y2>^^^^ .. with 



3,15 



3.45 



2.30 



^^^^^>-^^>-^^>-^'>^^^ /"/4/rJ/7c7(r6'5. 



^///////>//>>P^//^^^ 



Mill Shavings. 






■»\%ym 



V^^ ^ h"^'^ /V/7/ J/7aw>7y5 



?.^5 



^^-W.R Paper 
^^'■f Board 



^ 



■///?>>?yy>>>y?yyyyyyyy/y^yy^y^^>;^ W.P Paper 

{<-4 Mill 5havingr5 

S.^1 DM M. Boards 
^ and W.P Paper 



^^^ 



W)%%}M 






^^^ 



g:^^g^ 



s 



z.ei 



1.80 



:^^;^^^^ S ?:^^^^^^^S;:^^^^^^^^-^^^^^'"^^>^^ ^ Boards and 




Slightly 
Moist 



8"Mill 
' Shavings 



Damp 

-ei Boards and 
W.P Paper 



1.35 
1.80 
2.10 



1.15 



6am e with 12 Mill Shavings 



0.86 



16 



0.67 



20 >; 



0.55 



-2^^ 



0.48 



300 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



TABLE XXI— (Co^.1 



Hair Felt, 



B.T U Transmilted per sq.ft per Day per 
Degree of Difference of Temperature. 



TesT 



a 
o 
o 
u 












T Board 



\^.-W.P Paper 
%l"Hairreft 
'r:W.P Paper 



4,9/ 



Board 



^^S 



.g Boards and 

W.PPaper 

-l' Hair Felt 

^■^-V Boards and 

W.PPaper 



3.32 



8 




,/ Board 
^' W.PPaper 
3 "Hair Pelf 



^-W.PPaper 
' -f Board 



1.88 



Cork 



/ Board 
^MP Paper 
'.^-rCork 
-^W.PPaper 

^^^" Board 



4.20 




^ "Board 
%W.P Paper 
<-3"Cork 
'-W.PPaper 



3.25 



3.24 



s 



T Board 



.^■■§ Board 
-^-W.PPaper 
<--5"Cork 
■W.PPaper 
^-^ Board 



3.11 



2.10 



2.25 



■ I Boards and 
^ W.PPaper 
■I" Cork 

y- 3 Boards ana 
^ W.PPaper 



3.30 



3.10 



C^<-§ Boards and 
'- W.PPaper 



4 Cork 

%<■'§ Boards and 
W.PPaper 



1.70 



ICING STATIONS 



301 



TABLE XXI— (Con.) 



Mineral Wool. 



B.T. U. TransmHted per sq.ft. per Day per 
Degree of Difference of "Temperature. 



Test. 



o 
a 
o 
o 
O 



4- 






o 

O 
U 



.g Board 
-il.W^Praper 

7 Mineral Woo/ 
^r:WPap€r 

^^JBoard 



4.60 



4.51 



^^^'8 



Board 



^^ 



^S 



"=B3K^-2 



^■W.Braper 
ZVMinerrxiWool 
W.PPaper 



3.62 



Board 



3.28 




.g Board 
<-W.Bfbper 
<-4'MineralWool 

W.PPaper 
'ghoard 



3.48 



2.59 




\^i Boards and 
^ W.PPaper 

^'- 4 Mineral Woof 
V/6. percufr. 

// 

=<-/ Boards and 
i^:^- ^ W.PFaper 



220 



2. J 4 



Lith and Unofelr. 




-^ § Boards and 

'"= ^^ W.P Paper 

<:-l"Linofelt 

-§ Boards and 

W.PPaper 



2.30 



2.62 







5 Boards and 
W.PPaper 



^1 <-2 "Air Space 

?"Lifh 
%• W.P. Paper 
' '^f Board 



1.79 



_ rg Board 
'^-W.PPaper 
-3 "lith 
-W.PPdper 
'a Board 



J. 72 




1.59 



1.50 



302 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



air being denser, will flow out through these openings at the 
bottom of the house and will be replaced by the warmer air 
drawn in through the openings in the roof. This warmer air 
will be cooled by contact with the ice and cause ice meltage. 
It is a maxim in ice-house construction, that the space in which 
the ice is packed must be as nearly as possible entirely cut off 
from the outer air, and it should be surrounded by an insulating 



Ventilation 
Zx 8" PI ate-' 



6 "Opening 




Ventilation 



<- / Board 



Ventilation 

4"Air 
Space-' 

r-t" A " 

2x4} 

K 25'- 

FiG. 163. — Ice House with Circulation Vent. 

material. This means that the ceiling over the ice chamber 
must be insulated. 

In the roof above the ceiling it is proper and desirable to 
have air circulation, because the brisk movement of the air at 
the top of the house will dissipate the heat which tends to be 
stored under the roof. 

The air-vent or free circulating air passage along the walls 
of the ice house is of very doubtful value. If such an air space 
were entirely sealed the air within it would tend to be cold, and 



ICING STATIONS 303 

would therefore, oppose the passage of heat, until the heat leak- 
ing in through the exterior wall raised the temperature of this 
air quite appreciably. 

Where the air space is open, however, it is found that the 
result is to supply a continuous current of heat which must be 
taken up by the wall structure and hence transmitted into the 
ice chamber. The lower portion of the air in the circulating 
air chamber is cold and the upper portion warm. If the cir- 
culation is brisk, the cold air will leak out at the bottom and 
be replaced by warm air from above. This warm air is in turn 
cooled, and this cooling effect means ice meltage. 

The use of sawdust as previously noted should be discouraged. 
While at first this type of construction has a satisfactory insula- 
ting value as soon as the sawdust becomes damp, as it un- 
doubtedly will, the heat transmission through the walls will 
become continuously higher because damp sawdust has two or 
three times the heat transmission of dry sawdust. The damp- 
ness is due to the depositing of moisture on the walls from the 
air within the room, the dampness penetrating the filling, and 
the ice waste grows larger from year to year. 

Fig. 164 illustrates the typical wall construction used in 
the Swift Company houses. It will be seen at once that 
this design possesses some very meritorious features. The free 
use of paper keeps the moisture from entering the wall and adds 
greatly to the insulating value by lamination. Formerly this 
company favored the use of sawdust filling, and its houses until 
quite a recent date have been sawdust filled. This filling is 
being removed as rapidly as possible in existing structures and 
replaced with mill shavings, which is likewise used in all new 
construction. 

The Engineering Department of this company are very 
strenuously opposed to the practice of placing a ceiling over the 
ice. They apparently appreciate the value of preventing the 
air from reaching the ice, but believe that this is possible by 
using a top covering of 3 or 4 ft. of marsh hay. When the ice 
is being taken out, the hay is cast in racks or mangers provided 
for this purpose under the roof and thus kept dry. Ample air 



304 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



space is left between the top of the hay covering the ice and the 
roof and a brisk circulation maintained through this space. 
They advance the claim that any construction used for a ceiling 
will be subject to rotting, owing to the condensation of moisture 
from the ice chamber, and quote several instances of ceilings 
having become decayed and falhng in after 7 or 8 years of service. 
Fig. 165A shows hair insulation used in an ice house. Here, 
as in the previous example, we have no ceiling to the ice chamber; 
the ice is packed to within 3 ft. from the plate and 2 to 3 ft. of 
straw placed on top of the ice. A circulation under the roof 



Paper 



Paper 
^.'■lx2';30"Ctr6, 



\^\^''/^6 Drop 
6iaing 




Fig. 164. 



■Ice House with Mill Shavings Insulation. 
Swift & Go's. House. 



Wall Insulation, 



is obtained by opening the end windows during the night, these 
are kept closed, however, during the day. It will be noticed 
from the figure that the roof has a steeper pitch than the roof 
in the house of Fig. 163, and consequently a larger air-space 
is left above the ice. 

Applying formula (4) we find that this wall construction will 
transmit approximately 48 B.T.U. per square foot in 24 hours 
for 25 degrees difference day and night. 

Q = Z+X' = .74+.28 = 1.02 

___ 24Q (T- T) 



1\M 



ICING STATIONS 



305 




306 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

but 

C E/C 

I" Board 93 .94 

0.2" Hair. 32 .62 

4" Sawdust, slightly damp 1 . 00 4 . 00 

and 

2m = . 24X1.02X25 ^^^ ^^^^^^ 



[4 X. 94 +3 X. 62+4+^] 



2+1.02 4X.94+3X.62+4-t 

Multiplying this by the square feet of wall surface and by 
100 days and dividing by 288,000 the number of B.T.U. required 
to melt 1 ton of ice will give the tons of ice melted due to the 
heat admitted through the walls. In estimating the capacity 
of the house 1 cu.ft. of ice is generally taken as weighing 50 lbs. 
or 40 cu.ft. for each ton of capacity. 

Fig. 1655 illustrates the insulation in the Seymour Lake 
houses of the Cudahy Packing Company near South Omaha, 
Neb. They state that these houses after being in use two years 
showed a shrinkage of less than 5 per cent. 

An examination of the views given in the figure shows a con- 
siderable departure from the insulating methods of the preceding 
examples. Here we have the ice chamber protected by a well- 
insulated ceiling between which and the roof covering there is 
a suitable air-space provided with means for circulating the air. 
A waterproofing coat is put next the inside boarding of the house 
which prevents moisture reaching the wall and lowering its 
insulation value. In the wall is placed a |-in. Linofelt covering. 

The method of insulation used in the Galesburg ice house 
of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Ry., is shown by Fig. 
166. This design was adopted only after a very exhaustive 
examination of existing structures throughout the country and 
has been frequently referred to in the technical press as repre- 
senting the best modern practice in ice-house construction. 

The shrinkage in this house is about 10 per cent, which 
includes as well the loss in crushing the ice and handhng to the 
refrigerators. 



ICING STATIONS 



307 



Examining the insulating value of this house we find for 
the walls 

612 



2UI = 



2 + 1.02(.81+4X.87+8X. 11+8.00+8.00 



1 



f" Boards 93 

fl" Boards.. 93 

.03" Paper .27 

2" Lith 25 

6" Sawdust, nearly dry 75 

Ceiling, 

24M= ^ m ^^^ ^•'^•^• 

2+1.02/3X.87+— j 



1.02/ 

= 25B.T.U. 

E/C 

.81 

.87 

.11 
8.00 
8.00 



'ZxZ"Bridgmg 



i^'xSfF/rP/.._ 




Cross ■Section. 

Fig. 166. — Ice House with Mineral Wool Insulation, C.B. & Q. House, 

Galesburg. 



308 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

Figs-. 147 and 167 show examples of cork insulation. In 
Fig. 147, the drawing illustrates the wall section of a house for 
thawing coal, but the method of construction is much the same 
as that used for an ice-house wall. Granulated cork is used 
which is tamped until it is of the required density. As the cork 
is a by-product in the manufacture of cork-board, it is much 
cheaper than cork-board insulation. 

Fig. 167 presents the insulation used in the Illinois Central 
houses. Here, in addition to the cork, flax quilt and paper are 
employed and the inside of the house is plastered. 

The best shape for an ice house, other things being equal, 
is that which will give the maximum cubic capacity for the mini- 
mum wall area. This is found in a cube, and therefore the more 
nearly square an ice house can be built, the smaller the wall 
space that has to be insulated, and the smaller will be the shrink- 
age. The whole trend of modern construction is toward the 
use of a flat roof supported by longitudinal trusses resting on 
the partition walls between the rooms; this enables any width 
of house to be used. The cost of the flat roof is probably a little 
less than that of the gable roof. 

The Galesburg house on the C. B. & Q. Ry., is 81 ft. wide 
and the Collinwood house on the Lake Shore which was built 
by Swift & Company is 91 ft. 6 ins. 

Concrete construction costs about 20 per cent more than 
a wooden house. Its principal advantage is its longer life, but 
the extra cost does not appear to be warranted for the reason 
that changes in the operation of the road may necessitate moving 
the house before the period of its natural Hfe has been reached. 
Concrete has, however, been used, notably in the case of the 
recently constructed ice house on the Northern Pacific at Pasco, 
Wash., and also for some of the pre-cooling stations in California. 

These pre-cooling stations lower the temperature of the cars 
before the ice is put in the tanks, and in warm climates are very 
effective in reducing the ice meltage on the first stage of the 
car's journey. 

108. Delivering Ice to Cars.— The method formerly employed 
at large icing stations of crushing the ice on the platform and 



ICING STATIONS 



309 



shoveling it into the cars not only results in a heavy labor cost, 
but is extremely wasteful of the ice as well. All modern plants 



2\ 10' Rafters 24''0.Cr 
Roof i Rifch 
6 D. &M. Roof Boards.^ 

2x4 ' Rafferends 
6-0" Lon(^ 



i'xl' W.I. Straps 



/io. 24 a /.Gutter 
4''xS 



No. 24 
Gofv. Iron 
O.S.5"x4"- 




Sheath 

/io.ll5 S/d/ng..A 

l-micRness 2 R/lj^ ' 
0/crrpt Raper 
Z " Furring 
F/crx/Inum • ■ fc 



Detail of Ea v5s 



a f/axllnum 
2 "furnng ^—/—/l^l 



d'dinq 
No. /IJ->i:. 



2- Ply Giant 
Paper "--'^ 
I'kS "Sheathing- 
Z'xIO' 



I"x6 " Sheathing 

'..'2" Cork 
u-fP/asfer 

2"xG"P/ankFI. 
with 1" Space 




1x24"' 

AnchorBolts- 
4'-0"0.C. 






SECTION OF OUTER WALL 

Fig. 167. — Ice House with Cork Insulation, Illinois Central House. 

employ a crusher to prepare the ice for the refrigerator cars used 
in beef or poultry service; the cake ice for the fruit and butter 



310 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

and eggs is, however, skidded along a platform approximately 
level with the top of the cars. 

Fig. 168 illustrates the Galesburg house on the C. B. & Q. 
Ry. This house has a long double-deck platform in front with 
a loading track on either side. The upper deck is used for 
crushed ice and the lower deck for cake ice. In icing a train 
with crushed ice small carts are filled with crushed ice from 
the crusher and left in the crushing room until the train is about 
to pull in on the loading tracks. As soon as the train stops 
the covers are taken from the ice tanks in the cars and the 
crushed ice carts are wheeled alongside the platform opposite 
the tanks in the cars, and the crushed ice is transferred from the 
cart to the tank through an icing spout. 

On the lower deck are the salt boxes, averaging about 50 ft. 
apart, and salt is thrown in on top of the crushed ice. In loading 
a train with cake ice the carts are not used, but the ice is skidded 
along the lower platform and into the tanks on the cars. In 
cases of very long platforms a mechanical conveyor is sometimes 
employed to carry the cakes along the platform. 

In getting the ice out of the storage rooms to the crusher 
room and to the cake ice platform, elevators are employed in 
the division walls between the rooms and the ice is elevated by 
these to a runway in the cupola of the roof. At the Galesburg 
house this cupola contains an inclined skid, and the cakes slide 
down this by gravity to the center of the house, where they are 
delivered to the crusher or conveyed to the cake-ice platform. 
In some houses a mechanical conveyor is used to convey the ice 
from the top of the elevators to the center of the house above 
the crushing room. This is especially the case if the house is 
very long. 

In Fig. 169 a crusher, cart and icing spout are shown. The 
crusher requires about 25 H.P. to crush 75 tons of ice an hour. 
A station of 20,000 or 30,000 tons storage capacity should be 
equipped with from 80 to 100 carts holding about 1000 lbs. each. 

The spout shown in the figure is made for icing both sides 
of the car. The operator stands on the running board and by 
pulling down the lever raises the flap that covers the opening 




.a 


° 


o 


i-4 . 


U 




^ cp 


o 


= 


^ . 


. H 








lie Run 




--— - i ^ ! 




:..i_ 




/c^ /f^r, 




^n 


a 


. 


l—i 


a 


^r^''^-' -. 




"'■'"a 


5„/. 5,?.. 


...p-I ° 


• A 



Plan o-f Ice House. 




ICING STATIONS 



311 



A, and thus closes the opening toward B, This sends the ice 
out at A. By letting down the flap, he allows the ice to pass 
through and out at B. In the handling of the chute it is car- 




?i xj flail of Oak 

orSt'd Kail way Rail 

btneath Roller. 



• • \, Operating Door 



A. Ice Crusher. • B. Icing Cart. C. Icing Spout or Chute. 

Fig. 169. — Apparatus Used at Icing Stations. (Mech. Mfg. Co.) 



ried along by the operator on top of the car and when through 
with, it is pushed back on the platform out of the way. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Transmission of Heat through Cold-Storage Insulation, C. P. Pauld- 
ing, 1905, New York. 

Practical Cold Storage, M. Cooper, 1914, Chicago. 

Mechanical Refrigeration, H. Williams, 1903, New York. 

Refrigeration, Cold Storage and Ice Making, A. J. Wallis-Tayler, 
1912, London. 

Insulation of Ice Storages and Tanks, J. H. Bracken, Ice and Re- 
frigeration, April, 1909, p. 191. 

Buildings and Structures of American Railroads, W. G. Berg, 1900, 
New York, pp. 60-70. 

Railroad Structures and Estimates, J. W. Orrock, 1909, New York, 
pp. 135-139. 

Mechanical Refrigeration, H. J. Macintire, 1914, New York. 

Railroad Ice Storage Houses, Proceedings, Am. Ry. Bridge and 
Building Assn., 1914, pp. 43-108. 



CHAPTER XV I 

i 

SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 

109. Essentials of Signaling. 

PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL INDICATIONS RAILWAY SIGNAL ASSN. ' 

(1906). j 

(a) On all the high signals conferring or restricting rights . 

a red light shall be the night indication for Stop. A yellow i 

light shall be the night indication for Caution, and a green j 

light the night indication for Proceed. ! 

Note. — The word caution to be used as indicating the func- ' 
tion of a distant signal. 

(6) The day indication of semaphore signals shall be given 

in the upper right-hand quadrant. 1 

(c) The semaphore arm in the horizontal position shall indi- I 
cate Stop, inclined upward forty-five (45) degrees, Caution, 

and inchned upward, ninety (90) degrees, Proceed. ] 

MEMORANDUM ON THE ESSENTIALS OF SIGNALING, INCOR- 
PORATED IN THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TRANS- 
PORTATION OF THE AMERICAN RAILWAY ASSOCIATION, 
MAY, 1911: j 

The reports of various Committees of the Railway Signal | 
Association and the American Railway Engineering Association 
on the subject of signaling have been submitted to this Com- 
mittee, with the request that the essentials of signaling be out- 
lined or defined for the future guidance of their Committees. 

312 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 313 

The subject has been carefully analyzed and considered 
There are three signals that are essential in operation and there- 
fore fundamental, viz. : 

1. Stop. 

2. Proceed with caution. 

3. Proceed. 

The fundamental, ^' proceed with caution/^ may be used 
with the same aspect to govern any cautionary movement; for 
example, when: 

(a) Next signal is ^' stop.'' 

(fe) Next signal is ^' proceed at low speed.'' 

(c) Next signal is ^' proceed at medium speed." 

(d) A train is in the block. 

(e) There may be an obstruction ahead. 

There are two additional indications which may be used 
where movements are to be made at a restricted speed, viz. : 

4. Proceed at low speed. 

5. Proceed at medium speed. 

Where automatic block system rules are in effect, a special 
mark of some distinctive character should be applied at the 
stop signal. 

The Committee therefore recommends: 

Signal Fundamentals 

1. Stop. 

2. Proceed with caution. 

3. Proceed. 

Supplementary Indications to be Used Where Required. 

4. Proceed at low speed. 

5. Proceed at medium speed. 

Stop signals operated under automatic block system rules 
should be designated by some distinctive mark to be determined 
by each road in accordance with local requirements. 



314 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



SIGNAL PRACTICE AS DEFINED BY THE RAILWAY SIGNAL 

ASSN. (1913) 

Recommendations of Committee I 

Your Committee submits for approval the following two 
schemes of signaling in conformity with the recommendations 
of the Committee on Transportation. 



Scheme No. 1. 



Fundamentals. 



1. Stop 



2. Proceed with caution 



^ 



3. Proceed 



JD 



As a means of designating stop signals operated under auto- 
matic block-system rules, the following are suggested : 

1. The use of number plate; or 

2. The use of a red marker light below and to the left of the 
active light; or 

3. The use of a pointed blade, the blades of other signals 
giving the stop indication having square ends; or 

4. A combination of these distinguishing features. 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



315 



Scheme No. 2. 



Fundamentals. ^YndfcTtlons';^ 



1. Stop 



\<? 



2. Proceed with caution 



O 



n 



3. Proceed 



I] 



4. Proceed at low speed 



<? 



5. Proceed at medium speed 



n 



As a means of designating stop signals operated under auto- 
matic block-system rules, the following are suggested : 

1. The use of a number plate ; or 

2. The use of a red marker light below and to the left of the 
active light; or 

3. The use of a pointed blade, the blades of other signals 
giving the stop indication having square ends ; or 

4. A combination of these distinguishing features. 



316 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



Having in view the practice of indicating diverging routes 
by several arms on the same mast, the Committee submits for 
approval the following to estabUsh uniformity in this practice: 



Scheme Xo. 3. 



1. Stop, 



or 



or 



or 



2. Proceed with caution. 



3. Proceed. 



\<c> 



K> 



or 



1^ 



or 



J] J] J] 



or 



or 



4. Proceed with caution on low-speed 
route 



<;> or |<^ or 1^ 



5. Proceed on low-speed route 



n or 



=1 



6. Proceed with caution on medium- 
speed route 



=1 



7. Proceed on medium speed route. 



n 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 317 



8. Reduce to medium speed 



or 



n 



As a means of designating stop signals operated under auto- 
matic block-system rules, the following are suggested : 

1. The use of a number plate; or 

2. The use of a red marker light below and to the left of the 
active light; or 

3. The use of a pointed blade, the blades of other signals 
giving the stop indication having square ends; or 

4. A combination of these distinguishing features. 

The above three schemes are submitted, after an earnest 
effort to carry out the Committee's instructions to submit a 
uniform scheme of signaling, with the idea that each scheme 
is complete in itself. ^ 

Block signals are generally made with pointed ends and inter- 
locking signals with square ends (see Fig. 170) except the lower 
quadrant distant signal, which has a notched end. The home 
signals are generally painted red with a white stripe, although 
some roads prefer yellow with a black stripe. For night indi- 
cations the use of green for clear appears to be superseding 
white, yellow is used for caution and red for stop in connection 
with the green for clear; but if a white light is used for the clear 
indication, then green is used for caution, the red in either case 
being the stop indication. 

The first signals of fixed location for indicating a condition 
affecting the movement of trains were those where two roads 
crossed. These were of very crude form, consisting of a gate 
which could be swung across one of the tracks, leaving the other 
clear. Signals were next introduced to govern the movement 
of trains running on one track. 

110. Train Order and Manual Block Signals. — The signals 
were at first for the purpose of indicating to the train crew 
whether or not orders had been received at the telegraph station 
for the train. The telegraph office was generally located at the 



318 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

passenger station, and the train after receiving its orders, trans- 
mitted from the train despatcher through the telegraph operator, 
would run to the next station without further communication 
with the despatcher. Frequently the orders would provided for 
meeting points between stations, in which case one of the trains 
would be required to take a siding at a designated place and 
time and wait for the other train to pass it before proceeding 
farther. 

The track between the stations, where the despatcher can 
communicate with the train and control its movements, is called 
a block and the system of signaling is called a manual-block 
system to distinguish it from the automatic block system in 
which the signals are operated by electricity, actuated by a train 
or by certain conditions affecting the use of a block. 

A modification of the manual block system is the controlled- 
anual block. This is a block system in which the signals are 
operated manually, but so constructed as to require the co-opera- 
tion of the signal men at both ends of the block to display a clear 
or a caution block signal. 

The signals used in the manual block system are shown in 
Figs. 170D and 171. A great many of these signals are being 
mounted on iron poles and are upper quadrant. 

Frequently small interlocking plants of four or eight levers 
are employed to interlock the switches at the station, which are 
thrown from the tower by the signal man. 

With an increase in the density of traffic, telegraph offices 
are located between the stations and sidings provided for the 
trains at these points so that the blocks are shortened. When, 
however, the conditions of the road require blocks at frequent 
intervals the cost of operating the manual block, on account 
of the large number of signal men employed, becomes so great 
that the automatic block system can be used. 

111. Automatic Block, General. — In laying out the block 
signals on a piece of track it is necessary to place the signals 
with reference to the grades, curves and speeds trains run over 
different parts of the line. On descending grades the blocks 
should be made longer than on ascending grades, as the speed is 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



319 



greater and a greater distance is required in which to stop a train. 
In general the minimum length of block is the distance in which 
a train can be stopped on that particular part of the line. 

Obviously, the shorter the block the greater the train capacity 
of the road, as the trains with short blocks would be closer 
together than in the case of long blocks. The minimum length 



tfai 




A. Upper Quadrant Automatic 
Block Signal Blade. 







/"Door Rail^ . . ^^f- 10 "A r-. 




C. Lower Quadrant Distant 
Signal Blade. 







B. Upper Quadrant Interlocking D. Lower Quadrant Train Order 

Signal Blade. Signal Blade. 

Fig. 170.— Signal Blades. 
Note. — Sigs. A, B, and D red. with white stripe; Sig. C yellow with black 

stripe. 

of block is seldom used, and the lengths ordinarily employed 
vary from 4000 ft. to 12,000 ft., depending upon the density of 
traffic to be handled. 

The development of the present upper quadrant signal-block 
system can be understood from Figs. 172, 173 and 174. Fig. 
172 shows a block system with home signals at the entrance of 
each block and distant signals which give an advance indication 
of the position of the home signals, ah is the length of the block, 
signals ai and hi are distant signals which show the engineer of 
the train what to expect at the next home signal. He may pass 



320 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



the distant signal, but if this is in the caution position he must 
put his train under control and be prepared to stop at the home 



ID 



v////,'n///r////>////m:/fK 




777777777777777777: 



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VffffJ/nnnjf.'iii!>ni.WKvn! ' ;>hn!/r 7 f.'7//ii>> 



Fig. 171. — Train Order and Manual Block Signals. (Federal Signal Co.) 

signal if it is at danger. This arrangement is used only on light 
traffic roads when the length of the block is long. 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 321 

On roads with shorter blocks the signals may be arranged 
as shown in Fig. 173, with the home and distant signals mounted 
on the same posts. It is developed by shortening the length 
of the blocks until ai and b come so close together that they may 
be mounted on the same post. 

Fig. 174 illustrates the arrangement and use of three-position 
signals operating in the upper quadrant. These are rapidly 
superseding the two-position signals shown in Figs. 172 and. 173. 
Each signal is a home signal and distant signal combined, a is 
a home signal in the '' stop '' position; the arm is horizontal and 



Fig. 172. — Block Signals on Separate Posts. 

a bo, c b, 

.ee mu Eiu ^^ 



^^^ ni^ "UT "^j 

Fig. 173. — Block Signals with Home and Distant Signals on Same Post. 



<^ b 



Fig. 174. — Three-position Block Signals. 

the meaning is the same as a in Fig. 173. 6 is a home signal 
in the '' caution '' position, and c is a home signal in the pro- 
ceed position. 

The semaphore is primarily a position signal, yet in Figs. 
172 and 173, both arms a and ai are in the horizontal position, 
but have two entirely different meanings. The signals shown 
in Fig. 174 are therefore theoretically more correct in this respect. 

112. Automatic Block. Track Circuit.— The track circuit is 
the foundation of every automatic block system. It was in- 
vented in 1872 and has been used in all kinds of signaling and 
protective schemes. The installation of a section of track cir- 
cuit is very simple and merely consists in removing one of the 



322 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

metal joints from each rail at each end of the section and replacing 
them with insulated joints; the bonding together of the inter- 
mediate rails by running bonds of No. 8 galvanized iron wire 
around each joint and connecting a battery across the rails at 
one end, and an electromagnet across the rails at the other end. 

Fig. 175A shows a pair of rails connected at one end to an 
electric battery and at the other to a relay. When the current 
is allowed to flow freely through the rails and through the relay 
the armature of the relay acting as a switch causes a secondary 
electric circuit to be closed. The signal is on this secondary 
circuit and the flow of current which takes place through the 
operating mechanism of the signal keeps it in the '^ clear '' 
position shown at c of Fig. 174. 



Core 





Re /at) R f y/\ 

Electric 



DL B ^ ^ \Circuii- 
IS'Bafter^ Armature' 

A B 

Fig. 175. — Track Circuits. 

In Fig. 1755, however, let us imagine that a train is passing 
over the track, the current from the battery now flows through 
the wheels and axles of the train and returns to the battery and 
does not flow through the relay, with the result that the latter 
is demagnetized, allowing the armature to drop and thus opening 
the secondary circuit and causing the signal to go to danger. 
It will be noted that the same effect is produced if one of the 
rails is broken or a switch left open, as the electric track circuit 
is thus interrupted. 

A signal may also be controlled by another signal in advance 
by means of line wires in such a way that its semaphore cannot 
move to the vertical position, indicating proceed, until the signal 
in advance has moved to or beyond the inclined or 45 degrees 
'' caution '^ position. Thus one signal can give advance infor- 
mation to an approaching train of the position of the next signal. 
Such a condition is shown by b in Fig. 174. 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 323 

113. Automatic Block Signals. — The first electric signals were 
of the enclosed disc type. On account of the disc being enclosed 
very little power was required to operate the signal, but its 
indications were hard to read, especially during snow storms, as 
the snow would accumulate on the face of the signal, making it 
difficult to see the disc. 

The first clockwork disc signals were followed by automatic 
semaphore signals operated by compressed air or gas, controlled 
by electric power. The expense incident to the installation of 
this type of signal was very great, and in 1897 Mr. J. W. Lattig 
designed an electric semaphore signal which, considering the 
period of its inception proved quite successful. 

Fig. 176 shows the model 2A signal of the General Electric 
Co. Fig. A illustrates the top of mast mechanism. In this 
arrangement the motor shaft is directly connected to the sema- 
phore shaft, and on account of its greater mechanical efficiency 
is preferred by many signal engineers to the base of mast arrange- 
ment shown in Fig. B. Fig. 177 shows a block signal. 

In A. C. (alternating current) block systems the signals are 
operated with energy supplied from a transmission line of about 
2200 volts, and a transformer at each signal reduces this voltage 
to 110-120 volts for the signals and about 4 to 12 volts for the 
track circuit. 

In the D. C. (direct current) system the signals using current 
at about 10 volts are operated by either primary batteries or 
storage batteries. The storage batteries are either charged from 
a transmission line or are in portable sets so that they may be 
taken to a central station to be charged. 

The current for the track circuits at from 1 to 3 volts is 
generally furnished by gravity batteries located in battery chutes 
alongside the track. These chutes are separate from the battery 
wells which contain the batteries to operate the signals. 

While most of the automatic block signaling in this country 
is D. C, the use of A. C. current in recent years has been 
employed on considerable mileage. Wherever the track rails 
conduct current for other purposes, such as propelling of trains, 
it is necessary to use A. C. current for the track circuit. 



324 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 




A. Top of Mast Mechanism. B. Bottom of Mast Mechanism. 

Fig. 176.— Model 2A Signal, General Railway Signal Co. \ 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



325 



On steam roads the advantage of this system is the additional 
power available to operate the signals and light them, and its 
disadvantage the additional cost of the transmission line. 

In block signal territory each switch is insulated so that the 
track circuit passes through it unbroken. A circuit controller 
is attached to the point of the switch and adjusted so that if 
the switch is open one-fourth of an inch the track circuit will 
be short-circuited as if by the presence of a train. For the 




Fig. 177.— Block Signal. 



guidance of trains coming out of a siding onto the signaled track, 
a switch indicator (Fig. 178) mounted on an iron post near the 
switch is employed. The switch indicator is usually so con- 
trolled that when a train is approaching on the main track two 
blocks away the miniature semaphore is set to the '^ stop '^ 
position to warn the train in the siding not to open the switch. 
All sidings are made a part of the track circuit up to the fouling 
point to protect trains on the main track from cars which may 
not clear it. 



326 



RAILWAY IMAINTENANCE 



114. Mechanical Interlockers. — Fig. 179 shows a typical plan 
of a grade crossing protected by a mechanical interlocking plant. 
This consists essentially of an interlocking machine, located in 
the tower, composed of a nmnber of levers which operate the 
various derail and signal functions. These levers are interlocked 

so that only the derails and signals for one 
of the routes may be set at one time. The 
numbers on the plan correspond to the num- 
bers given the levers and a manipulation 
chart is placed in the tower for the con- 
venience of the operator in setting up the 
routes. 

When a movement is desired over any 
one of the tracks the derails for the route 
are set for the passage of the train, the home 
signal is then cleared, and finally the dis- 
tant signal is cleared which locks the move- 
ments of the functions on the other track 
in positions to prevent the trains on that 
track using the crossing. 

Fig. 180 shows the Saxby and Farmer 
machine. 

On many roads the distant signals are 
electrically connected, and when this is done 
the apparatus for operating the wire-con- 
nected signals is omitted from the machine. 
A rocker shaft is quite generally employed 
as shown in Fig. 181, instead of the crank 
illustrated in Fig. 180. 

Before the lever can be moved from its 
normal position, the latch must be raised. This operates the bars 
in the locking; dogs are riveted to these bars which, through the 
medium of cross locks, lock the bars on the levers controlling func- 
tions conflicting with those operated by the lever it is desired to 
throw. Consequently the latch cannot be raised nor the lever 
moved unless the conflicting functions are in their proper positions, 
and after the latch is raised these conflicting functions are locked. 




Fig. 178. 
Switch Indicator. 

(Federal Signal Co.) 



SIGNALS AND TNTERLOCKERS 



327 



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328 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



When the lever is thrown the latch is dropped, and this releases 
those levers which are to be thrown next. 

The dog chart, Fig. 179, is the working drawing by which 
the locking is laid out and is a diagram of the locking as it 
appears in the machine. The locking sheet is prepared before 







Fig. 180. — Saxby and Farmer^s Interlocking Machine. 



the dog chart is made and shows the locking required for each 
lever. 

The normal position of the lever and function it controls 
is the danger position. The reverse position is the clear or pro- 
ceed position. In the locking sheet in the column headed 
^^ locks '' the numbers in circles refer to the reversed position, 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



329 



and the numbers without circles refer to the normal position of 
the lever corresponding to the number. 



k Pitch 



32'-0" Radius 



r 

I 



-5-5^ 








/2 Channel \ 

.—.3-6--^ / 

— ^r^ 



iO Char\nel 



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f/i 



Zi 



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be laid after 
Machine is placed 






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Fig. 181. — Interlocking Tower. 



In reading the locking sheet we see on referring to the track 
plan that the distant signal No. 1 locks the home signal No. 2 
reversed. No. 2 reversed locks the facing point locks 6 reversed 



330 RAILWAY MAIXTEXAXCE 

and the opposing signal Xo. 15 normal. Xo. 6 reversed locks the 
derails Xo. 7 reversed. 

Therefore, b}^ reversing lever Xo. 1, which clears distant 
signal Xo. 1, all the functions on the route are locked in the 
reverse position and a clear route through the interlocking is 
assured for the passage of the train given a clear indication by 
the distant signal Xo. 1, and the signals are set against trains 
approaching the crossing on this track in an opposite direction. 

This is, however, not enough to give the train a safe passage 
over the crossing, and it must be protected from trains which 
may approach the crossing on the other track. Bearing in mind 
that derails Xo. 7 are now locked reversed, it will be seen from 
the locking sheet that derails Xo. 11 are locked normal and 
trains cannot get to the crossing from the track on which these 
derails are situated. 

It will be observed that the two derails Xo. 7 and their 
facing-point locks Xo. 6 are operated by one lever, as they 
must always be in the same position. This is also true of Xos. 
10 and 11.*^ 

Referring again to the dog chart, the numbers at the top of 
the chart are the levers and those at the side the locking bars, 
which are numbered in the order in which they are placed in the 
machine, commencing with Xo. 1, next to the levers. The small 
circles at the intersection of the vertical lines and the horizontal 
lines show the lever by which the bar is worked, for example, 
the latch on lever Xo. 1 moves bar 6. 

To understand thoroughly the locking, let us assume that 
a train is approaching the crossing from the west on the L. & M. 
Ry. The first signal to be passed b}^ the train is the distant 
signal Xo. 1. By referring to the dog chart it will be seen that 
the dog on bar 6, operated by the latch on lever Xo. 1, will pre- 
vent the latch being raised (and the bar moved) until lever 
Xo. 2 is reversed. The dog to the left on bar 1 will prevent 
lever Xo. 2 being reversed until lever Xo. 6 is reversed, and 
the dog to the left on bar 5 will likewise prevent this lever being 
reversed until the dog to the right on bar 8 is moved. This 
bar is moved by the latch on lever Xo. 7, and it will be seen 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 331 

that reversing this lever locks lever No. 11 normal by means 
of the dog to the left on bar 8. 

The towerman in setting up the route for the train must 
therefore close the derails No. 7, lock them with locks No. 6, 
clear the home signal No. 2 and finally clear the distant signal 
No. 1. The approaching train can then pass through the interlock- 
ing with a clear route and protected from trains on the other track. 

It will be noticed on the dog chart that the locking of No. 15 
normal by reversing No. 2 is accomplished by means of a ^^ butt.'' 
This arrangement is employed to avoid the dupUcation of lock- 
ing, as with the locking, as shown, lever No. 2 reversed locks 
lever No. 6 reversed and lever No. 15 normal with one dog. 

The levers are connected to the derails and switches by pipe 
lines running alongside the track. The home signals are also 
generally pipe-connected, but the distant signals, where not 
electrically operated, are wire-connected. The use of electric 
distant signals, as shown in Fig. 182, permits these to be placed 
farther away from the home signals than is possible in the case 
of wire-connected signals. 

The pipes are supported by roller carriers on wood, iron or 
concrete foundations, and when over 50 ft. long a compensator, 
to take care of expansion and contraction, is used. Wire lines 
are carried in the same manner, but the expansion and con- 
traction is provided for by adjusting screws. 

All switches within the limits of the interlocking should be 
controlled from the tower, so that no unauthorized movement 
may be made. 

Fig. 182 shows a more complicated crossing than that given 
in Fig. 179. 

In Fig. 182, Nos. 1, 2 and 32 are switches. Switches were 
formerly quite generally operated by a mechanism known as 
a switch and lock movement, as shown in Fig. 183. It will be 
seen that the first part of the movement of the lever in the 
tower unlocks the switch; the jaws in the mechanism then throw 
the switch and the last part of the stroke locks the switch. 

The use of a switch-and-lock movement is not considered 
good practice on main lines (in mechanical interlocking), and 



332 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



its use is now confined largely to side tracks. For the main 
line a facing-point lock is employed. This is shown in Fig. 184 
and requires two levers — one to throw the s^\'itch and another 
to operate the lock. The term facing-point lock is used because in 
the early days only facing-point switches, or those with the switch 
point facing the direction of traffic, were locked in this manner. 

Connected to the lock is the detector bar. This is a bar 
which lies against the edge of the rail and is so arranged that 
when the lock is operated the bar is first moved, rising slightly 



v2* 




Fig. 182. — Railroad Crossing with Electric and Mechanical Signals. 



above the top of the rail. If a train is passing over the switch 
the bar cannot be moved, which prevents the leverman from 
throwing the switch under a train; the bar is made long enough 
(usuall}' 55 ft.) to engage the wheels on both trucks of a car. 

It will be observed that no detector bars are shown for the 
switches and derails on the double track Hne in Fig. 182. Here 
a detector circuit takes the place of the detector bar, the cir- 
cuit being extended to pro\'ide route locking. That is after a 
train passes either distant signal 2581 or distant signal 2602 the 
levers in the tower are electrically locked, so the tower man can- 
not open the switches or derails on the track upon which the train 
is approaching. 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



333 



Derails are used at the signals controlling the crossings for 
the purpose of derailing a train if the signal should be disregarded. 
In Fig. 182, Nos. 3, 8, 14, 16, 22, 26 and 32 are derails. 
Derails are of two general kinds, first, where the track is broken, 



locking Plungers 




Fig. 183. — Switch and Lock Movement, Model 2, Union Switch and Signal Co, 




ic: 



n 



Q Bi)H BSD Q 



5jl IBB sal lOr- 



JI 



©— 1_— r-F©] 



IE 



g^gin^Jitfega 




s© 



;3<^> 



Fig. 184. — Facing Point Lock. (Ry. Sig. Assn.) 

as in the case of the point derail, which is an ordinary switch 
point; and second, where the track is unbroken, as with the 
Wharton or Hayes derails described in Chapter VII. 

All of the derails shown in Fig. 182 are Wharton, or Hfting 
derails, except No. 32, which is a Hayes derail located on a 
side track. 



334 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE \ 

In Fig. 182 the high signals with square-end blades are home 

signals, and in lower quadrant signaling the end of the blade is j 
notched for the distant signals. Signals Nos. 4, 17, 28 an 30 
are distant signals. Nos. 2581 and 2602 are also distant signals, 

but these are part of the automatic block system operating in - 

the upper quadrant and electrically connected with the home ; 

signals. The relation between distant and home signals is the i 
same in interlocking as that described in the operation of the 

block system, the function of the distant signal being to give i 

an advance indication of the position of the home signal. : 

The distant signals Nos. 4, 28 and 30 are mechanically con- i 

nected signals operating in the lower quadrant, and the distant ' 

signal No. 17 is a lower-quadrant signal also, but electrically | 

operated. The home signals Nos. 5, 27 and 29 are mechanical | 

lower -quadrant signals. No. 17 is an electrical lower-quadrant ! 

signal and Nos. 9 and 23 are electrical upper-quadrant three- \ 

position signals which also act as block signals.* The dwarf | 

signal No. 13 is electrically operated and governs the back-up \ 

movement against traffic. Signal No. 11 is an electrically \ 

operated two-position upper-quadrant signal to let trains down ! 

to the crossing at very slow speed. It is sometimes called a ' 
call-on arm. 

The last report of the Interstate Commerce Commission ; 

shows the use of interlocking as follows: I 

Types of Plants. Number of Per cent Number , 

Plants Of Working j 

Levers j 

Mechanical 4850 80 

Electric 729 12 

Electro-mechanical . . . 262 4 

Electro-pneumatic. ... 241 4 i 

Pneumatic . 32 — ' " 

Total 6114 100 144,506 I 

* Some roads, notably the Pennsylvania, do not consider these home | 

signals as acting in place of the block signal, but provide an additional home ] 

signal at the leaving limits of the interlocking to govern the movement i 

of trains entering the block ahead. \ 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 335 

115. Power Interlockers. Electro-Pneixmatic. — The electro- 
pneumatic system derives its name from the fact that com- 
pressed air is employed to operate the switches and signals, 
and electricity is used to control the admission and discharge 
of air to and from the cylinders operating the functions. 

The system consists of the following elements : 

First, — A source of compressed air supply at approximately 
75 lbs. per square inch. 

Second, — A source of current supply at approximately 12 
volts. 

Third. — An interlocking machine for controlling the opera- 
tion of switches and signals. 

Fourth. — Switch-operating mechanisms with their controlling 
and indicating circuits. 

Fifth. — Signal-operating mechanisms with their controlling 
and indicating circuits. 

The compressed-air supply consists generally of two com- 
pressors, one as a relay to the other, which may be driven by 
electric, steam or other available power. 

Frequently, especially at terminals, a source of compressed- 
air supply exists, for other purposes, such as cleaning of cars, 
operation of tools, etc. This supply may be used with little 
additional expense, as the interlocking system requires a com- 
paratively small amount of air. 

At interlocking sites where no supply of compressed air exists, 
there is usually available a source of direct or alternating current 
which may be utilized for the operation of air compressors. In 
such cases an automatic governor is provided as part of the com- 
pressor equipment, which is so regulated that when the pressure 
in the main air pipe reaches the maximum desired the compressor 
is automatically stopped, and when the air pressure reaches the 
minimum desired the compressor is automatically started. 

The work performed by electricity in the control of the electro- 
pneumatic system is small and both the pressure and volume 
of the current used are low. All of the actual work is performed 
by compressed air, the function of the electricity being simply 
the control of the various air valves by electro-magnets, and the 



336 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



control and operation of the electric locks, relays,, indicators 
and similar appliances. 

The electro-pneumatic interlocking machine (Fig. 185) con- 
sists of small levers conveniently arranged in a common frame 
and adapted to the operation of mechanical locking similar in 
character to that employed in mechanical interlocking machines, 
but of smaller design. Each lever in the machine also operates 




Fig. 185. — Electro-Pneumatic Interlocking Machine. D. L. & W. R. R. 
Hoboken Terminal. (Union Switch and Signal Co.) 

a number of electric contacts, and attached to each lever are one 
or more electric locks. 

The mechanical locking is provided for preventing the opera- 
tion of levers which, if moved, would conflict in function with 
one or more levers. 

The contacts control electric currents by which switches and 
signals are operated by the levers, and are also used for opening 
and closing different circuits as required by the many com- 
binations of leyer positions. 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



337 



The electric locks are provided for restraining lever operation 
according to conditions remote from the machine when these 
are adverse to their safe operation, such as preventing final move- 
ment of levers until the operated unit has responded to the 
initial lever movement and preventing the initial movement of 



NWIaAVM 



nWW\*vu*i 




Fig. 186. — Electro-Pneumatic Switch and Lock Movement. 
(Union Switch and Signal Co.) 



of switch levers by train action where detector track circuits are 
used in place of mechanical detector bars. 

Each set of switch and frog points embraced in the track 
system is operated by a switch and lock movement (Fig. 186). 
The switch and lock movement is operated by direct action 



338 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

of the piston of a double-acting cylinder, of which the admission 
and exhaust are controlled by a slide-valve usually mounted upon 
the cylinder. The operation of the shde-valve is effected by 
three electro-magnets, mounted on the valve, which are con- 
nected to the lever contacts of the machine by three individual 
wires. 

Each signal of the system is operated by a single-acting 
cyhnder, the admission of air to which is under the control of a 
pin valve and electro-magnet. 

The power interlocking plants require much less space than 
the mechanical machine, and as the small operating levers entail 
very little effort on the part of the leverman to manipulate 
them, and as less levers are required than in a mechanical plant, 
fewer levermen are necessary for the operation of large plants. 

The electro-pneumatic interlocking plant at the St. Louis 
Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis illustrates this. The 
machine for operating this plant, which includes 44 double-slip 
switches with movable-point frogs, 65 single switches and 194 
signals, is about 44 ft. in length over all, and contains only 215 
levers, of which 33 are not in use, being available for future 
additions to the plant. A mechanical plant to operate this ter- 
minal would have contained 528 levers, and been 245 ft. long. 
Five levermen on the busiest shift operate the electro-pneumatic 
machine, while not less than twenty men would have been 
required for a mechanical machine under similar conditions. 

The interlocking at the UDion Station at Washington and at 
the Pennsylvania Terminal at New York is of the electro- 
pneumatic system. At the former, three plants are used; the 
total number of lever spaces in the three frames is 291, of which 
240 are active levers leaving 51 spaces for future use. The 
largest machine, that at K Street, has a 191-lever frame, with 
162 working levers. 

At the Pennsylvania Terminal the system of interlocking 
comprises 11 interlocking machines, varying in size from 11 lever 
to 179 lever frames, having a total of 516 working levers, of 
which 40 are used for traffic and special locks and 476 to control 
92 double-slip ends, 46 pairs of movable-point frogs, 267 single 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 339 

switches, 451 two- and three-position high signals and 187 two- 
and three-position dwarf signals. 

116. Power Interlockers, Electric. — ^An installation of an 
electric interlocking system comprises the following principal 
elements: 

First. — A source of power consisting of a storage battery 
with its charging unit. 

Second. — Power control apparatus introduced between the 
source of power and the interlocking machine. 

Third. — An interlocking machine with levers for the con- 
trol of the switch and signal mechanisms. 

Fourth. — Switch mechanisms, their operating and indicating 
circuits. 

Fifth — Signal mechanisms, their operating and indicating 
circuits. 

Sixth. — Means for the prevention of unauthorized movement 
of any function. 

The source of power from which the system is operated con- 
sists of a storage battery having an approximate working poten- 
tial of 110 volts. The battery is charged by a power-generating 
unit, which may be a generator driven by a small gasoline engine, 
or a motor generator set when the current is taken from an out- 
side source. 

In explaining the apparatus used in electric interlocking, 
the General Railway Co.'s machine will be used as being typical 
of most electric interlocking. The essential differences in this 
interlocking as compared with other makes lie in the dynamic 
indication given by all principal switch and. signal functions, 
without which indication the next sequence of operations cannot 
be carried out, (some systems use a battery indication in place 
of the dynamic,) and the means for prevention of unauthorized 
function movements. The cross-protection system prevents the 
unauthorized movement of any function due to energy improperly 
applied to its circuit through a cross between wires, by cutting 
off current from the function in the event of such an occurrence. 

Fig. 187 illustrates a front view of an electric interlocking 
machine and in Fig. 188 is shown a cross-section of the machine. 



340 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



All the movements of switch and signal functions are controlled 
by the levers. 

In explaining the operation of the lever, its movement is 
considered as being divided into three parts, the preliminary, 
intermediate and final. It should be observed that the pre- 
liminary and intermediate part usually constitute one continuous 
movement, it being necessary to separate them, however, when 
considering the detail operation of the lever. 




Fig. 187. — Electric Interlocking Machine, Model 2, Unit Lever Type, General 

Railway Signal Co. 



The following description is based on the operation of the 
switch lever. Each of these levers is provided with a cam slot, 
by means of which intermittent motion is transmitted to its 
respective tappet bar and thence to the cross-locking. In Fig. 
189A the dotted circles 1 to 5 in the cam slot indicate the 
positions of the locking-tappet roller which correspond with the 
like numbered positions of contact block Z. In the preliminary 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



341 



movement of the lever from position 1 to 2, the locking tappet 
is moved through one-half of its stroke, this movement locking 
all levers which conflict with the new position of the lever in 
question; in this movement no change whatever is made in the 
operating circuits. During the intermediate part of the travel 
from positions 2 to 4, the tappet bar remains stationary and 



CABINE 



LAMP CASE 



LEVER 



INO. MAGNET 



SAFFTY MAGNET 



INDICATION 
SELECTOR 




LOCKING PLATES 



Fig. 188. — Cross-section, Electric Interlocking Machine, Model 2, Unit 
Lever Type, General Railway Signal Co. 



the contact block Z is moved out of engagement with springs 
YY and into contact with springs XX, as shown in Fig. 1895, 
this setting up the circuits for the operation of the function. 
The lever is held at this point (position 4), through the mechan- 
ical design of the lever proper, until such time as the function 
having moved to a corresponding position, generates a dynamic 



342 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



indication current which effects the release of the lever and per- 
mits its movement to position 5. During this final movement 
from position 4 to 5, the stroke of the locking tappet is com- 
pleted, thereby unlocking all levers which do not conflict with 
the new position of the operated lever. 



1 ra 





S 4 3 2 f 



M/////////////j^ 



n 




s— 



^ 



-^ 



Fig. 189. — Switch Lever, Electric Interlocking Machine Unit Type, General 

Railway Signal Co. 



The method by which the lever is prevented from completing 
its stroke, until the controlled function has mov^ed to a corre- 
sponding position and has sent in its indication, is illustrated by 
the following: in moving from positions 1 to 2 projection M on 
the lever coming against projection K on latch L, causes the 
latch to assume the position shown in Fig. 1895. This brings 
projection J on latch L into the path of tooth Q on the lever. 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 343 

In moving from position 2 to 4, tooth Q engages with cam N, 
rotating it to the position shown in Fig. 1895. As it passes 
the central position (shown dotted in Fig. 189i?) it comes in con- 
tact with dog P, which is forced under latch L, thereby locking 
the latch L in the position assumed. The lever is stopped at 
position 4 by tooth Q coming against projection J on latch L 
as previously explained. The indication current, by flowing 
through magnet /, lifts armature T. which causes plunger R to 
strike dog P and trip it out from under latch L. The latch L 
then drops to the position shown in Fig. 189A, thereby releasing 
the lever and permitting its final movement to be accomplished. 

The movement of the lever from reverse to normal is per- 
formed in a manner similar to that described above. Once the 
lever has been moved to, or beyond, position 3, it can neither 
be moved forward beyond position 4 nor back beyond position 
2 without the receipt of an indication. 

The movement of the signal lever is identical with that of 
the switch lever except that no electrical indication is required 
during the reverse movement, the lever not being checked at 
position 4 due to a change in the design of dog F, which is 
mechanically tripped at this point from under latch L by cam N , 
The mechanical locking insures that before a signal can be given 
for any route, all switch and derail functions in the route 
are thrown to the proper positions and locked in that posi- 
tion, and all opposing signals are in the stop position. No 
changes can be made in the position of any of these functions 
until the lever controlling the signal displayed at proceed has 
been replaced to its full normal danger position. 

The locking plates are securely attached to the front of the 
machine frame, as shown in Fig. 187, the number depending upon 
the amount of locking required at each individual plant. 

The locking plates are designed with vertical and hori- 
zontal slots, the locking tappets, one of which is attached to 
each lever, being fitted in the vertical slot directly beneath its 
respective lever. Movement is transmitted from the lever 
through the medium of the tappets to the cross-locking, which 
sUdes back and forth in the horizontal slots of the locking plates. 



344 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 

To facilitate the manipulation of the levers of the interlock- 
ing machine^ it is customary to mount within full view of the 
leverman a diagram of the track layout, showing the relative 
location of all interlocked switch and signal functions, also a 
chart listing the various routes through the plant and the order 
in which the levers are to be moved in setting up each of these 
routes. By referring to the chart, the leverman is guided in 
manipulating the levers in the sequence imposed by the mechan- 
ical locking between levers, thus aiding him greatly in the hand- 
ling of the traffic passing through the plant. 

The track diagram and manipulation chart are usually com- 
bined in one plan, as shown in Fig. 190, and mounted in a single 
frame, unless their combined size is prohibitively large, in which 
case they are framed separately. 

For a long time it has been customary to give to the lever- 
man an indication of the trains approaching the interlocking 
plant; with the advent of the route locking and the semi-auto- 
matic control of signals, and the consequent general use of track 
circuits within the interlocking limits, this practice has been 
extended to indicating at the interlocking station the condition 
of all the track sections within the plant. This supplements 
the information given by the track diagram and manipulation 
chart, and adds considerably to the facility with which the 
traffic is handled. 

The approach sections are usually repeated by disc indicators 
and the different track sections between the home signal limits 
by semaphore indicators. These are generally located on the 
wall of the operating room near the track diagram, being mounted 
either separately with individual covers or on a common frame 
with a single cover. 

A method of indicating the occupancy or non-occupanc}'' of 
the various track sections, rather more elaborate than by the 
use of repeating indicators, is through the employment of the 
illuminated track diagram. This type of indicator is of great 
assistance on extremely busy plants where it is necessary to know 
when a train has cleared each route or section of a route, in order 
promptly to prepare for the next train movement. It is prac- 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



345 





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346 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



tically essential wherever it is not possible for the operator to 
obtain a clear view of the tracks within the interlocking limits. 

The device consists of a boxlike frame, the front or cover 
of which is glass, painted to leave transparent the track layout 
and to show the relative location of the various switch and signal 
functions. One or more miniature incandescent Hghts are located 
in a slot or channel behind each track section, the condition of 
the track circuit usually being indicated by whether or not the 
bulbs are lighted. 




W-..J:i 



Fig. 191.— Model 4, Switch Machine, General Railway Signal Co, 



The switch and derail functions are operated by switch and 
lock movements driven by series-wound D.C. motors. 

The Model 4 switch machine of the General Railway Signal 
Co., shown in Figs. 191 and 192, is designed with all operating 
parts within one case. The case, which affords protection 
against the weather, provides a base plate for the mechanism, 
being bolted through the tie plate to the head block and the 
next tie back. The operating parts consist of the motor A, a 
train of spur gears, the main or cam gear Z), the pole changer 
Mj the throw rod J and locking bar F. 

The motor through the medium of the train of gears drives 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



34' 




Fig. 192.— Switch Machine, Chicago Terminal, C. & N. W. Ry. Model 
' 4, General Railway Signal Co. 




Fig. 193. — Dwarf Signal, Electric Division, New York Central; Model 2A, 

General Railway Signal Co. 



348 



RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



the cam gear, from which gear the various parts of the switch 
machine are operated. 

The intermittent movement of the locking bar and detector 
bar is accomphshed by the engagement of rollers on the locking 
bar with the cam slot on the upper side of the main gear. 
Staggered locking is provided by the arrangement of the dogs on 




Fig. 194. — Lake Street Interlocking Plant, Chicago Terminal, C. & N. W. 
Ry. (General Railway Signal Co.) 



the locking bar, these dogs being placed so that after one dog has 
been withdrawn to release the lock rod, the switch points must be 
moved to the opposite position before the other dog can enter its 
slot in the lock rod. The throw rod is locked in both extreme posi- 
tions of the switch by a bolt operated from the cam movement. 
The switch points are thrown at the proper time by a roller on 
the lower side of the main gear engaging a jaw in the throw rod. 



SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKERS 



349 



The signal mechanisms are of two types : 

First, the non-automatic, which is entirely under the control 
of a lever in the interlocking machine. Generally speaking, 
this type is furnished for dwarf signals and for such high signals 
as will at no time require track-circuit control. 

Second J the semi-automatic, which is operated under the joint 
control of a lever in the interlocking machine and the track circuits 
in such sections of track as are governed by the signal arm. 

Fig. 193 shows a dwarf signal. The mechanism, which is the 
same for dwarf and high signals, consists essentially of three main 
parts, the motor, a train of gears and the circuit breaker. These 
are all housed in a weather-proof case, which is provided with 
doors to give convenient access to all parts. 

When used fqr the operation of high signals, it is fastened 
to a clamp bearing (Fig. 176A) which carries the semaphore shaft, 
the design of this bearing permitting the mechanism to be sup- 
ported at any desired height on the signal mast and at any angle 
to the track. Fig. 194 presents a view of the Lake Street 
interlocking plant at the Chicago Terminal of the Chicago 
and Northwestern Ry. 

The installation of electric interlocking at this terminal is 
as follows: 



Lake St. Plant 
Clinton St. '' 
Noblest. 
Division St. ' ' 
Carpenters ^ ' 

Total, 5 plants 



212 lever spaces 
168 

80 
120 

64 



644 



At the Grand Central Terminal of the New York Central 
Ry., New York: 

Plant ^'A " 360 lever spaces 

'' ^'B'' 400 

" 'T^' 160 

" '^F" 80 

Total, 5 plants 1144 
Plant '' B '' is the largest power plant in the world. 



350 RAILWAY MAINTENANCE 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Proceedings, Railway Signal Assn. 

Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. 

Signal Engineer Magazine. 

Signal Dictionary, 1911, New York. 

Telegraph Engineering, E. Hausmann, 1915, New York, pp. 224-252. 

Signal Glass, W. Churchill, Proceedings, New York Railroad Club, 
Meeting of February 20, 1914. 

Electro-Pneumatic Interlocking Union Switch and Signal Co., 1914, 
Swissvale, Pa. 

Electric Interlocking Handbook, 1915, General Railway Signal Co., 
Rochester, N. Y. 

Railwaj^ Signaling in Theory and Practice, J. B. Latimer, 1909, 
Chicago. 

Automatic Block Signals and Signal Circuits, Ralph Scott, 1908, 
New York. 

Railway Signaling, 1908, Pittsburgh (reprinted from a series of articles 
published in the Electric Journal). 



INDEX 



Adzes, 215 

Air (see also Pneumatic) : 

Spaces in ice-house construction, 
296 

Tractor for turntable, 277 
Alternating current signaling, 323 
Angle bars, 152 ' 
Anti: 

Creepers, 166 

Splash nozzle, 255 
Artificial ice, 288 
Automatic block, 318 

B.T.U. to melt 1 ton of ice, 306 
Ballast ; 

Bibliography, 190 

Car, 180 

Cleaning, 178 

Depression of, 114, 187, 200 

Depth of, 185, 189 

Distribution of pressure through, 
179 

Handling, 179 

Kinds of. 172, 173 

Physical tests, 176 

Sections, 174 

Specifications, 176 

Sub-ballast, 174 

Weight, 58, 177 
Bars : 

Claw, 215 

Crow, 215 

Lining, 215 

Pinch, 215 

Tamping, 215 



Base lines, U. S. surveys, 25 
Batteries, used in block signaling, 

323 
Berm ditches, 41 
Bessemer : 
Process, 119 
Production of rails, 121 
Bibliography: 
Ballast, 190 
Bridges, 70 
Buildings : 

Fuel stations, 270 

Icing stations, 311 

Roadway, 242 

Shops and engine-houses, 284 

Station, 242 

Water stations, 259 
Crossings, 225 
Culverts, 70 
Grading, 59 
Engineering, 21 
Engine houses, 284 
Fences, 225 
Fuel stations, 270 
Icing stations, 311 
Interlockers, 350 
Joints, 169 
Land, 38 
Maintaining track and right of 

way, 225 
Rail, 136 

Roadway buildings, 242 
Shops, 284 
Signals, 350 
Signs, 225 



351 



352 



INDEX 



BibKography: 

Spikes, 171 

Station buildings, 242 

Surfacing, 225 

Tie plates, 171 

Ties, 99 

Track: 

Creeping, 171 
Maintaining, 225 
Material, 169 
Scales, 242 

Trestles, 70 

Turnouts, 169 

Water stations, 259 
Blast furnace, 117 
Block signals, 317, 323 
Bolts, track, 159 
Bonds, rail, 322 
Bridge : 

Signals, 348 

Ties, 82 
Bridges, 60 
Buildings : 

Fuel stations, 260 

Ice houses, 298 

Roadway, 238 

Shops and engine houses, 271 

Station, 227 

Water stations, 243 
Bullhead rail, 110 
Bumping posts, 167 
Burnettizing, 96 

Camera surveys, 5 
Carnegie steel tie, 74 
Cars: 

Ballast, 180 

Dump, 52 

Flat, used in grading, 51 

Hand, 238 

Motor, 222 
Carts,'ice, 311 
Cast iron: i 

Manufacture of, 117 

Pipe culverts, 65 



Cattle guards, 207 
Center-bound track, 196 
Centrifugal force on curves, 18 
Chats, ballast, 174 
Chemical composition: 

Bolts, track, 160 

Fence wire, 202 

Joints, 153, 155 

Nut locks, 160 

Rails: 

Early, 131 

Effect of different elements, 130 
Present practice, 132 
Special, 132 
Chert ballast, 174 
Chisels, track, 215 
Chutes: 

Coal, 260 

Ice, 311 
Cinder: 

Ballast, 173 

Pits, 278 
Circuits : 

Detector, 332 

Track, 322, 331 
Clam shells: 

for handling cinders, 280 
coal, 262 
Clay: 

Burnt for ballast, 173 

Specifications for, 176 
Cleaning ballast, 178 
Clearing land, 45 
Coal storage, 266 
Coaling stations, 260 
Columns, water, 254 
Combination stations, 227 
Compensation for curves, 20 
Compromise joints, 159 
Concrete : 

Culverts, 60 

Engine houses, 274 

Fence posts, 204 

Fuel stations, 265 

Icing stations, 308 



INDEX 



353 



Concrete : 
Pipe, 66 
Ties, 75 

Trestles, 64 
Conductivity of heat, different mate- 
rials, 292 
Conservation of the timber supply, 88 
Construction: 

Contract, 53 

Engineering, 10 

Profile, 11 

of the Roadbed, 45 

Steam shovel, 47 

Team work, 45 
Continuous rail, 135 
Contract, construction, 53 
Cork insulation: 

Coal-thawing plant, 266 

Ice house, 292, 297, 300, 309 
Corrugated-metal culverts, 65 
Creeping of track, 166, 195 
Creosote process, 91 
Cross : 

Section notes, 15 

Shop, 282 

Ties (see Ties). 
Crossings : 

Gates, 212 

Interlocked, 326 

Street, 209 

Timbers, 83 

Track, 150 
Crusher, ice, 311 
Culverts : 

Masonry, 60 

Pipe, 65 
Curves, 16 
Cut spikes, 162 
Cuts, drainage of, 41 

Deeds : 

Information required for, 36 
Writing description for, 26 

Derails, 147, 326 

Descriptions of land, 26 



Detector : 

Bars, 332 

Circuits, 332 
Diesel engine, 246 
Direct: 

Current signaling, 323 

Radiation, heating by, 274 
Dirt ballast, 174 
Distant signals, 319, 321, 326 
Ditches, 41 

Ditching machines, 42, 194 
Docks, coal, 260 
Dog chart, 327 
Doublehead rail, 110 
Drag scrapers, 47 
Drain tile in cuts, 41 
Drainage, roadway, 41 
Dmnp cars, 52 
Duplexing, 123 
Dwarf signals, 349 
Dwellings, section, 241 

Earth ballast, 174 
Earthwork : 

Estimation of quantities, 13 

Handling, 45 
Electric : 

Crossing gates, 212 

Interlockers, 339 

Pneumatic interlockers, 335 

Pumps, 245 

Signals, 324, 349 

Welded fence, 202 
Elevating graders, 48 
Elevation of outer rail, 18 
End areas, method of averaging, 13 
Engine houses, 271 
English ran, 110, 131 
Estimation of quantities, 13 
Expansion of rails: 

Amount of, 193 

Shims, 192 
Exploration surveys, 1 

Facing-point lock, 333 



354 



INDEX 



Failures, rail, 135 
Fences: 

Right of Way, 201 

Sand, 207 

Snow, 206 
Fires: 

Danger of on trestles, 62 

on Right of way, 223 
Flat cars used in grading, 51 
Forest fires, 224 
Frame trestles, 60 
Freight houses: 

Local, 227 

Terminal, 233 
Friction : 

Angle of, soils, 55 

of Joints, 155 

in Stand pipes and valves, 252 
Frogs : 

Crossing, 150 

Turnout, 142 
Fuel stations, 260 

Galvanized-wire fence, 203 
Gas: 

Engines, 246 

Producer, 247 
Gasoline : 

Motor section cars, 222 

Pumping engines, 245 
Gauge : 

Track, 215 

Widening on curves, 20 
Graders, 48 
Grading : 

Bibliography, 59 

Construction contract, 53 

of the roadbed, 45 

Estimation of quantities, 13 

Sections, 39 
Granite, disintegrated, ballast, 174 
Gravel ballast : 

Distribution of pressure through, 
179 

Physical tests of, 176 



Gravel ballast: 

Specifications, 178 
Grubbing land, 45 
Guard: 

Cattle, 207 

Rail, 143 

Hair, used in ice-house construction, 

292, 297, 300, 305 
Handcar houses, 238 
Harvesting natural ice, 285 
Heat: 

Conductivity of different materials, 

292 
Flow of, through walls, 290, 294, 

299 
Radiation of, 290 
Treated: 
Bolts, 160 
Joints, 153 
Heating plants: 

Coaling stations, 266 
Engine houses, 274 
Sand houses, 280 
Water stations, 250, 254 
Home signals, 319, 321, 326 

Ice: 

Artificial, 288 

Delivery to cars, 308 

Natural, 285 

Storage of, 298 
Icing stations, 285 
Inclines, coaUng station, 260 
Indirect radiation, heating by, 274 
Ingot, 123 

Insulated joints, 158, 322 
Insulation: 

Coal-thawing plant, 266 

Ice houses, 289 
Interlockers : 

Bibliography, 350 

Electric, 339 

Electro-pneumatic, 335 

Mechanical, 326 



INDEX 



355 



Iron: 

Manufacture of, 117 
Pipe culverts, 65 
Rails: 

Production of, 121 

Section, 103 

Jacks : 

Smoke, 273 

Track, 217 
Joints: 

Insulated, 158, 322 

Spacing ties at, 195 

Uninsulated, 152 

Land: 

Basic divisions of, 23 

Bibliography, 38 

Descriptions of deeds, 26 
leases, 34 

Purchase of, 36 
Laying rail, 192 
Leads, switch, 145, 148 
Leases, writing descriptions for, 34 
Length of Rails, 134 
of Spirals, 21 
of Ties, 81, 85 
of Turntables, 276 
Levels, track, 217 
Levers, interlocker, 326, 335, 339 
Linofelt, used in ice-house construc- 
tion, 292, 297, 301, 305 
Lith, used in ice-house construction, 

292, 301, 307 
Location, railroad, 7 
Locking: 

Interlocker, 326, 335, 339 

Route, 332 

Sheet, 327 
Longitudinal : 

Shop, 282 

Support of rail, 72 
Lower quadrant signals, 319, 321 
Lowery process, 91 



Mail cranes, 228 
Manipulation chart, 345 
Manual block, 317 
Manufacture, rail steel: 

Bessemer process, 119 

Blast furnace, 117 

Duplexing, 123 

the Ingot, 123 

Open-hearth process, 121 

Rolling, 126 
Masonry culverts, 60 
Mechanical: 

Cinder loader, 279 

Coaling plants, 262 

Handling of ice: 
Harvesting, 285 
at the House, 308 

Interlockers, 326 

Signals, 320, 326 
Meridians, principal, 25 
Metal ties, 74 

Mill shavings used in ice-house con- 
struction, 292, 296, 299, 304 
Mineral wool, used in ice-house con- 
struction, 292, 296, 301 
Moisture, effect of in wood, 97 
Motor cars, 222 
Mud ballast, 174 

Natural ice, 285 
Nut locks, 160 
Nuts, 159 

Offset bars, 159 
Oil: 

Engines, pumping, 245 

Houses, 240 

Quenched joints, 153 
Open-hearth: 

Process, 121 

Production of rails, 121 
Overhaul, 11 

Passenger houses: 
Local, 227 



356 



INDEX 



Passenger houses: 

Terminal, 231 
Pedestal support of rail, 72 
Photographic surveys, 5 
Picks, tamping, 215 
Pile trestles, 60 
Pipe: 
' Culverts: 

Cast iron, 65 
Concrete, 66 
Corrugated metal, 65 

Lines, interlocking, 331 
water, 247 

in Rails, 124 
Pits, cinder, 278 
Platforms, fuel, 260 
Plow: 

Snow, 210 

Unloading, 51, 180 
Pneumatic : 

Crossing gates, 212 

Interlockers, 335 
Pole tie, 79 
Power interlockers: 

Electric, 339 

Electro-pneumatic, 335 
Pre-cooling stations, 308 
Preservation : 

Creosote process, 91 

of Fence posts, 203 

Tie, 89 

Zinc chloride process, 96 
Pressure : 

Allowable on sub-grade, 54 

Distribution through ballast, 179 
Principal meridians, 25 
Prismoidal formula, 14 
Producer-gas plants, 247 
Profile, construction, 11 
Pumps, 244 
Purifying plants, 257 

Quantities, estimation of, 13 

Radiation of heat, 290 



Rail: 

Benders, 217 
Bibliography, 136 
Bonds, 322 

Chemical composition: 
Early rails, 131 

Effect of different elements, 130 
Present practice, 132 
Special, 132 
Continuous, 135 
Elevation of, on curves, 18 
Expansion of, 193 
Failures, 135 
Guard, 143 
Joints, 152 
Laying, 192 
Lengths, 134 
Manufacture : 

Bessemer process, 119 
Blast furnace, 117 
Duplexing, 123 
the Ingot, 123 
Open-hearth process, 121 
Rolling, 126 
Production of, 121 
Sawed, 192 
Sections, early, 102 
foreign, 108 
present, 104 
Specifications, 133 
Stresses, 111 
Tongs, 215 
Weight, 108 
Ranges, U. S. surveys, 24 
Reconnaissance surveys, 1 
Reinforced concrete (see Concrete). 
Resident engineer, duties of, 10 
Right of way : 
Fences, 201 
Fires on, 223 
Maintaining, 192 
Writing descriptions of, 26 
Roadbed (see Roadway). 
Roadway : 

Bearing power of, 54 



INDEX 



357 



Roadway: 

Buildings, 238 
Construction of, 45 
Machines: 
Ballast plow, 180 
Cars, motor section, 222 
Ditching machines; 42, 194 
Grading, 45 
Snow plow, 210 
Track-laying machines, 194 
Unloading plow, 51 
Sections, 39 
Small tools, 214 
Rock wool, used in ice-house con- 
struction, 292, 296, 301 
Rolling, rail, 126 
Rotary snow plow, 210 
Round houses, 271 
Route locking, 332 
Rueping process, 91 

Sand: 

Ballast, 173 

Distribution of pressure through, 
189 

Fences, 206 

Houses, 280 
Sawdust, used in ice-house construc- 
tion, 292, 296, 302, 307 
Sawed rail, 192 

Saxby and Farmer machine, 328 
Scales: 

Coaling station, 266 

Track, 236 
Scrapers, 46 
Screw spikes, 162 
Section : 

Dwelling houses, 241 

Tool houses, 238 

Tools, 214, 218 

U. S. surveys, 23 

Work, 216 
Sections: 

Ballast, 174 

Grading, 39 



Sections: 
Rail: 

Early, 102 
Foreign, 108 
Present, 104 

Roadway, 39 

U. S. surveys, 24 
Segregation in rail steels, 124 
Semaphores (see Signals). 
Shavings, used in ice-house construc- 
tion, 292, 296, 299, 304 
Shims, expansion, 192 
Shops, 281 
Shovels, steam, 47 
Signals : 

Bibliography, 350 

Block, 317, 323 

Electric, 324, 349 

Electro-pneumatic, 338 

Essentials of, 312 

Interlocking, 319, 326, 338, 349 

Mechanical, 320, 326 

Station, 317 
Signs, 211 
Slag ballast, 172 
Slides, 44 
Slip scrapers, 47 
Smoke jacks, 273 
Snow: 

Fences, 207 

Handling, 209 

Sheds, 208 
Sod Une, 39 

Soils, bearing power of, 54 
Spark arresters, 224 
Specifications: 

Ballast, 176 

Clearing and grubbing, 45 

Rail, 133 

Tie, 80 
Spike mauls, 215 
Spikes, 161 
Spirals, 16 
Splice bars, 152 
Spontaneous combustion of coal, 286 



358 



INDEX 



Spouts, ice, 311 


Sub-grade (see also Roadway). 


Spreaders, 53 


Bearing power of, 54 


Spring washers, 160 


Surfacing, 195 ^ 


Stadia surveys, 4 


Surveys: 


Stand pipes, 254 


Camera, 5 


Stations : 


Reconnaissance, 1 


Freight: 


Stadia, 4 


Local, 227 


U. S. land, 23 


Termmal, 233 


Switch, 138 


Fuel, 260 


Indicator, 326 


Icing, 285 


Interlocked, 326, 335, 339 


Passenger : 


and Lock movements, 333, 337, 


Local, 227 


346 


Terminal, 231 


Machines : 


Pre-cooling, 308 


Electric, 346 


Water, 243 


Electro-pneumatic, 337 


Steam : 


Stands, 141 


Engines, pumping, 245 


Ties, 83, 85 


Shovels (see also Clam shells, 




Ditchers), 47 


T-raH (see Rail). j 


Steel: 


Tamping, 195 


Tanks, 248 


Tanks: ^ 


Ties, 74 


Track, 254 ' 


Stock pens, 228 


Water, 247 


Stone, crushed, ballast, 172 


Team work in grading, 45 


Distribution of pressure through, 


Tensile strength (see Strength). 


179 


Tests: 


Physical tests of, 176 


Ballast: 


Specifications, 176 


Depression in, 114, 200 


Stone screenings: 


Distribution of pressure through. 


Ballast, 173 


179 


Specifications, 176 


Physical, 176 


Storage: 


Insulation, 292, 299 


Coal, 266 


Rail: 


Ice, 298 


Stremmatograph, 115 


Store houses, 239 


U. S. Government, 114 


Stremmatograph, 115 


Tie: 


Strength: 


Absorption of creosote, 95 


Bolts, 160 


Strength, 96 


Fence wire, 202 


Thawing plant, coal, 266 


Joints, 154, 158 


Three-position signals, 312, 319, 321 


Stresses: 


Ties: 


Joint, 153 


Bibliography, 99 


Rail, 111 


Concrete, 75 


Tie, 96 


Conservation of timber supply, 88 



INDEX 



359 



Ties: 

Forms of, 72 
Metal, 74 
Plates, 163 
Plugs, 161 
Preservation : 

Creosote process, 91 
Zinc chloride process, 96 
Spacing of, 194, 195 
Strength of, 96 
Wood: 

Production of, 77 
Specifications, 80 
Woods used, 85 
Tiling in cuts, 41 

Timber supply, conservation of, S8 
Titanium, in rail manufacture, 124 
Tongs, 215 
Tools: 

Grading, 45 
Houses, 238 
Ice, 286 

Section, 214, 218 
Townships, U. S. surveys, 24 
Track: 
Bolts, 159 
Chisels, 215 
Circuits, 321 
Diagram, 345 
Gauges, 215 
Indicator, 344 
Insulators, 158 
Jacks, 217 
Laying, 192 
Layouts: 

Local stations, 229 
Shops, 283 
Levels, 217 
Maintaining, 192 
Material: 
Anti-creepers, 166 
BibHography, 169 
Bolts, 159 
Bumping posts, 167 
Crossings, 150 



Track: 
Material : 
Derails, 147 
Frogs, 142 
Joints, 152 
Nut locks, 160 
Spikes, 161 
Switches, 138 
Tie plates, 163 
Scales, 236 
Spikes, 161 
Surfacing, 195 
Tanks, 254 
Wrenches, 215 
Tractor, turntable, 277 
Train: 

Order signals, 317 
Sheds, 233 
Transfer table, 282 
Trap rock: 
Ballast, 172 

Distribution of pressure through, 
188 
Treated: 

Fence posts, 203 
Ties: 

Creosote process, 91 
Zinc chloride process, 96 
Water, 257 
Trestle: 

Coaling station, 260 
Concrete, 64 
Pile and frame, 60 
Turnout ties, 83, 85 ' 
Turnouts, 138 
Turntables, 276 

U. S. surveys of land, 23 
Ultimate strength (see Strength). 
Upper quadrant signals, 312, 319, 321 

Valves, stand pipe, 251 

Washouts, 44, 69 
Watch houses, 238 



360 



INDEX 



Water: 

Columns, 254 

Cost o pumping, 245 

Hammer, 253 

Pipe lines, 247 

Stations, 243 

Treating plants, 257 
Waterway for bridges and culverts, 

67 
Weighing coal, 266 
Weight : 

Ballast, oS, 177 

Ice, 306 

Rails, lOS 

Steam shovels, 51 
Whar^-es, fuel, 260 
Wheel: 

Scrapers, 46 

Stop, 170 
Wire lines, interlockiug, 331 
Wood: 

Fence posts, 203 



Wood: 

Pipe lines, 247 

Tanks, 248 

Ties: 

Production of, 77 
Specifications, SO 
Woods used, S5 

Trestles, 60 
Work equipment: 

Ballast car, ISO 

Dirt spreaders, 53 

Ditching machines, 42, 194 

Dump cars, 52 

Snow plows, 210 

Steam shovels, 47 

Track-lavLQg machines, 194 
Wrenches, track, 215 

Yield point (see Strength). 

Zinc chloride process, 96 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

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SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

OF 
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August, 191 5 

SHORT=TITLE CATALOG 

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OP 

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Abbott, A. V. The Electrical Transmission of Energy 8vo, *$5 00 

A Treatise on Fuel. (Science Series No. 9.) i6mo, o 50 

Testing Machines. (Science Series No. 74.) i6mo, o 50 

Adam, P. Practical Bookbinding. Trans, by T. E. Maw.i2mo, *2 50 

Adams, H. Theory and Practice in Designing 8vo, *2 50 

Adams, H. C. Sewage of Seacoast Towns 8vo, *2 00 

Adams, J. W. Sewers and Drains for Populous Districts.. . .Svo, 2 50 

Adler, A. A. Theory of Engineering Drawing Svo, *2 00 

Principles of Parallel Projecting-Line Drawing Svo, *i 00 

Aikman, C. M. Manures and the Principles of Manuring. . .Svo, 2 50 

Aitken, W. Manual of the Telephone Svo, *S 00 

d'Albe, E. E. F. Contemporary Chemistry i2mo, *i 25 

Alexander, J. H. Elementary Electrical Engineering i2mo, 2 00 

Allan, W. Strength of Beams under Transverse Loads. 

(Science Series No. 19.) i6mo, o 50 

Allan, W. Theory of Arches. (Science Series No. 11.). . i6mo, 
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Anderson, J. W. Prospector's Handbook i2mo, i 50 



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Andrews, E. S.,- and Heywood, H. B. The Calculus for 

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Argand, M. Imaginary Quantities. Translated from the French 

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Armstrong, R., and Idell, F. E. Chimneys for Furnaces and 

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Atkinson, J. J. Friction of Air in Mines. (Science Series 

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Austin, E. Single Phase Electric Railways 4to, *5 00 

Ayrton, H. The Electric Arc 8vo, *5 00 

Bacon, F. W. Treatise on the Richards Steam-Engine Indica- 
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Bailey, R. D. The Brewers' Analyst Svo, *5 00 

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Ball, W. V. Law Affecting Engineers Svo, *3 50 

Bankson, Lloyd. Slide Valve Diagrams. (Science Series No. 

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Barham, G. B. Development of the Incandescent Electric 

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Cornwall, H. B. Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis. 8vo, *2 50 

Cowell, W. B. Pure Air, Ozone, and Water i2mo, *2 00 

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Dorr, B. F. The Surveyor's Guide and Pocket Table-book. 

i6mo, mor., 2 00 

Draper, C. H. Elementary Text-book of Light, Heat and 

Sound i2mo, i 00 

Draper, C. H. Heat and the Principles of Thermo-dynamics, 

New and Revised Edition i2mo, 2 00 



12 



D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 



Dron, R. W. Mining Formulas i2mo, i oo 

Dubbel, H. High Power Gas Engines 8vo, *5 oo 

Duckwall, E. W. Canning and Preserving of Food Products .8 vo, *5 oo 
Dumesny, P., and Noyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates, and 

Extracts 8vo, *4 50 

Duncan, W. G., and Penman, D. The Electrical Equipment of 

Collieries . . , Svo, *4 00 

Dunstan, A. E., and Thole, F. T. B. Textbook of Practical 

Chemistry i2mo, *i 40 

Duthie, A. L. Decorative Glass Processes. (Westminster 

Series) Svo, *2 00 

Dwight, H. B. Transmission Line Formulas Svo, *2 00 

Dyson, S. S. Practical Testing of Raw Materials Svo, *5 00 

and Clarkson, S. S. Chemical Works Svo, *7 50 

Eccles, W. H. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. ... (/n Press.) 
Eck, J. Light, Radiation and Illumination. Trans, by Paul 

Hogner Svo, *2 50 

Eddy, H. T. Maximum Stresses under Concentrated Loads, 

Svo, I 50 

Edelman, P. Inventions and Patents i2mo, (In Press.) 

Edgcumbe, K. Industrial Electrical Measuring Instruments. 

Svo. 
Edler, R. Switches and Switchgear. Trans, by Ph. Laubach. 

Svo, *4 00 

Eissler, M. The Metallurgy of Gold Svo, 7 50 

The Metallurgy of Silver , Svo, 4 00 

The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Lead Svo, 5 00 

A Handbook of Modern Explosives Svo, 5 00 

Ekin, T. C. Water Pipe and Sewage Discharge Diagrams 

folio, *3 00 

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Eliot, C. W., and Storer, F. H. Compendious Manual of Qualita- 
tive Chemical Analysis i2mo, *i 25 

Ellis, C. Hydrogenation of Oils Svo, *4 00 

Ellis, G. Modern Technical Drawing Svo, *2 00 

Ennis, Wm. D. Linseed Oil and Other Seed Oils Svo, *4 00 

Applied Thermodynamics Svo, *4 50 

Flying Machines To-day. i2mo, *i 50 



D. VAN NOSTKAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 13 

Vapors for Heat Engines i2mo, *i oo 

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Ermen, W. F. A. Materials Used in Sizing i2mo, *2 oo 

Evans, C. A. Macadamized Roads {In Press.) 

Ewing, A. J. Magnetic Induction in Iron 8vo, *4 oo 

Fairie, J. Notes on Lead Ores i2mo, *i oo 

Notes on Pottery Clays i2mo, *i 50 

Fairley, W., and Andre, Geo. J. Ventilation of Coal Mines. 

(Science Series No. 58.) i6mo, o 50 

Fairweather, W. C. Foreign and Colonial Patent Laws . . .Svo, *3 00 

Fanning, T. T. Hydraulic and Water-supply Engineering. Svo, *5 00 

Fay, I. W. The Coal-tar Colors 8vo, *4 00 

Fernbach, R. L. Glue and Gelatine Svo, *3 00 

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Fischer, E. The Preparation of Organic Compounds. Trans. 

by R. V. Stanford 1 2mo, *i 25 

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Fisher, H. K. C, and Darby, W. C. Submarine Cable Testing. 

Svo, *3 50 
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Aikman Svo, 4 00 

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Volumes Svo, 

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VoL II. The Utilization of Induced Currents *5 00 

Propagation of Electric Currents Svo, *3 00 

A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing 

Room. Two Volumes Svo, each, *5 00 

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Handbook of Electrical Cost Data Svo. (In Press) 

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14 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY^S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

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Fox, W., and Thomas, C. W. Practical Course in Mechanical 

Drawing i2mo, i 25 

Foye, J. C. Chemical Problems. (Science Series No. 69.). i6mo, 50 

Handbook of Mineralogy. (Science Series No. 86.). 

i6mo, o 50 

Francis, J. B. Lowell Hydraulic Experiments 4to, 15 00 

Franzen, H. Exercises in Gas Analysis i2mo, *i 00 

French, J. W. Machine Tools. 2 vols 4to, *i5 00 

Freudemacher, P. W. Electrical Mining Installations. (In- 
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Frith, J. Alternating Current Design 8vo, *2 00 

Fritsch, J. Manufacture of Chemical Manures. Trans, by 

D. Grant Svo, *4 00 

Frye, A. I. Civil Engineers* Pocket-book lamo, leather, *5 00 

Fuller, G. W. Investigations into the Purification of the Ohio 

River 4to, *io 00 

Furnell, J. Paints, Colors, Oils, and Varnishes Svo, *i jdo 

Gairdner, J. W. I. Earthwork Svo {In Press.) 

Gant, L. W. Elements of Electric Traction Svo, *2 50 

Garcia, A. J. R. V. Spanish-English Railway Terms. .. .8vo, *4 50 

Garforth, W. E. Rules for Recovering Coal Mines after Explo- 
sions and Fires i2mo, leather, i 50 

Garrard, C. C. Electric Switch andl Controlling Gear. . . . (In Press.) 

Gaudard, J. Foundations. (Science Series No. 34.) i6mo, o 50 

Gear, H. B., and Williams, P. F. Electric Central Station Dis- 
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Geerligs, H. C. P. Cane Sugar and Its Manufacture Svo, *5 00 

Geikie, J. Structural and Field Geology Svo, *4 00 

Mountains, Their Origin, Growth and Decay Svo, *4 00 

The Antiquity of Man in Europe Svo, *$ 00 

Georgi, F., and Schubert, A. Sheet Metal Working. Trans. 

by C. Salter Svo, 3 00 

Gerber, N. Analysis of Milk, Condensed Milk, and Infants' 

Milk-Food Svo, i 25 

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of Country Houses I2m0| *2 00 



D. V^AN NOSTRAND company's SHORT-TITL^ CATALOG 15 

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Gerhard, W. P. Household Wastes. (Science Series No. 97.) 

i6mo, 

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Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. (Science Series No. 93.) 

i6mo, 

Gerhardi, C. W. H. Electricity Meters 8vo, 

Geschwind, L. Manufacture of Alum and Sulphates. Trans. 

by C. Salter 8vo, 

Gibbs^ W. E. Lighting by Acetylene i2mo, 

Gibson, A. H. Hydraulics and Its Application 8vo, 

Water Hamriier in Hydraulic Pipe Lines i2mo, 

Gibson, A. H., and Ritchie, E. V. Circular Arc Bow Girder. 4to, 

Gilbreth, F. B. Motion Study. A Method for Increasing the 

Efficiency of the Workman i2mo, 

Primer of Scientific Management i2mo, 

Gillmore, Gen. Q. A. Limes, Hydraulics Cement and Mortars. 

Svo, 

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Golding, H. A The Theta-Phi Diagram i2mo, 

Goldschmidt, R. Alternating Current Commutator Motor . Svo, 
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Goodeve, T. M. Textbook on the Steam-engine i2mo, 

Gore, G. Electrolytic Separation of Metals Svo, 

Gould, E. S. Arithmetic of the Steam-engine i2mo, 

Calculus. (Science Series No. 112.) i6mo, 

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Series.) i6mo, 

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Gray, J. Electrical Influence Machines i2mo, 

Gray, J. Marine Boiler Design . . .' i2mo, 

Greenhill, G. Dynamics of Mechanical Flight. ^^^ ^^^ . . . .Svo, 
Greenwood, E. Classified Guide to Technical and Commercial 

Books Svo, 

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Griffiths, A. B. A Treatise on Manures i2mo. 






50 





50 





50 


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16 D. VAN XOSTRAND CO^^IPAXY S SHOKT-TITLE CATALOG 

Griffiths, A. B. Dental Metallurgy 8vo, 

Gross, E. Hops 8vo, 

Grossman, J. Ammonia and its Compounds i2mo, 

Groth, L. A. Welding and Cutting Metals by Gases or Electric- 
ity. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, 

Grover, F. Modern Gas and Oil Engines 8vo, 

Gruner, A. Power-loom Weaving 8vo, 

GUldner, Hugo. Internal-Combustion Engines. Trans, by 

H. Diedrichs 4to, 

Gunther, C. 0. Integration i2mo. 

Gurden, R. L. Traverse Tables folio, half mor., 

Guy, A. E. - Experiments on the Flexure of Beams 8vo, 

Haenig, A. Emery and the Emery Industry i2mo, 

Hainbach, R. Pottery Decoration. Trans, by C. Slater. . i2mo. 

Hale, W. J. Calculations of General Chemistry i2mo, 

Hall, C. H. Chemistry of Paints and Paint Vehicles i2mo. 

Hall, G. L. Elementary Theory of Alternate Current Work- 
ing 8 vo, 

Hall, R. H. Governors and Governing Mechanism i2mo. 

Hall, W. S. Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus 

8vo, 

Descriptive Geometry 8vo volume and 4to atlas, 

Haller, G. F., and Cunningham, E. T. The Tesla Coil i2mo, 

Halsey, F. A. SHde Valve Gears i2mo, 

The Use of the Slide Rule. (Science Series.) i6mo, 

Worm and Spiral Gearing. (Science Series.). ...... i6mo, 

Hancock, H. Textbook of Mechanics and Hydrostatics 8vo, 

Hancock, W. C. Refractory Materials. (Metallurgy Series. (In Press.) 

Hardy, E. Elementary Principles of Graphic Statics i2mo, 

Harrison, W. B. The Mechanics* Tool-book i2mo. 

Hart, J. W. External Plumbing Work 8vo, 

Hints to Plumbers on Joint Wiping 8vo, 

Principles of Hot Water Supply 8 vo, 

Sanitary Plumbing and Drainage 8vo, 

Haskins, C. H. The Galvanometer and Its Uses i6mo, 

Hatt, J. A. H. The Colorist . Second Edition. . . .square i2mo, 



*3 


50 


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50 


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25 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 17 

Hausbrand, E. Drying by Means of Air and Steam. Trans. 

by A. C. Wright i2mo, *2 00 

Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus. Trans. 

by A. C. Wright 8vo, 

Hausmann, E. Telegraph Engineering 8vo, 

Hausner, A. Manufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats. 
Trans, by A. Morris and H. Robson 8vo, 

Hawkesworth, J. Graphical Handbook for Reinforced Concrete 
Design 4to, 

Hay, A. Continuous Current Engineering 8vo, 

Hayes, H. V. Public Utilities, Their Cost New and Deprecia- 
tion ,. 8vo, *2 00 

Public Utilities, Their Fair Present Value and Return, 

Svo, 

Heather, H. J. S. Electrical Engineering Svo, 

Heaviside, O. Electromagnetic Theory. Three volumes. 

Svo, Vols. I and II, each, 
Vol. Ill, 

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Steam-Engine and Other Steam Motors. Two Volumes. 

Vol. I. Thermodynamics and the Mechanics Svo, 

VoL II. Form, Construction and Working Svo, 

Notes on Elementary Kinematics Svo, boards, 

Graphics of Machine Forces Svo, boards, 

Heermann, P. Dyers' Materials. Trans, by A. C. Wright. 

i2mo, 

Hellot, Macquer and D'Apligny. Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and 

Cotton Svo, 

Henrici, 0. Skeleton Structures Svo, 

Hering, D, W. Essentials of Physics for College Students. 

Svo, 
Hermann, G. The Graphical Statics of Mechanism. Trans. 

by A. P. Smith i2mo, 2 00 

Herring-Shaw, A. Domestic Sanitation and Plumbing. Two 

Parts Svo, *5 00 

Elementary Science of Sanitation and Plumbing .... Svo, *2 00 

Herzf eld, J. Testing of Yarns and Textile Fabrics Svo, *3 50 



+2 


00 


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50 


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00 


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50 


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18 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Hildebrandt, A. Airships, Past and Present 8vo, *3 50 

Hildenbrand, B. W. Gable-Making. (Science Series No. 32.) 

i6mo, o 05 

Hildich, H. Concise History of Chemistry i2mo, *i 

Hill, J. W. The Purification of Public Water Supplies. New 52 

Edition {In Press.) 

Interpretation of Water Analysis (In Press.) 

Hill, M. J. M. The Theory of Proportion 8vo, *2 50 

Hiroi, I. Plate Girder Construction. (Science Series No. 95.) 

i6mo, o 50 

Statically-Indeterminate Stresses i2mo, *2 00 

Hirshfeld, C. F. Engineering Thermodynamics. (Science 

Series.) i6mo, o 50 

Hobart, H. M. Heavy Electrical Engineering 8vo, 

Design of Static Transformers 8vo, 

Electricity Svo, 

Electric Trains Svo, 

Electric Propulsion of Ships Svo, 

Hobart, J. F. Hard Soldering, Soft Soldering, and Brazing. 

i2mo, 
Hobbs, W. R. P. The Arithmetic of Electrical Measurements 

i2mo, 

Hoff, J. N. Paint and Varnish Facts and Formulas i2mo. 

Hole, W. The Distribution of Gas Svo, 

Holley, A. L. Railway Practice folio, 

Hopkins, N. M. Experimental Electrochemistry Svo, 

Model Engines and Small Boats i2mo, i 25 

Hopkinson, J., Shoolbred, J. N., and Day, R. E. Dynamic 

Electricity. (Science Series No. 71.) i6mo, o 50 

Horner, J. Practical Ironfounding Svo, *2 00 

Gear Cutting, in Theory and Practice Svo, ^3 00 

Houghton, C. E. The Elements of Mechanics of Materials. i2mo, *2 00 

Houllevigue, L. The Evolution of the Sciences Svo, *2 00 

Houstoun, R. A. Studies in Light Production i2mo, *2 00 

Hovenden, F. Practical Mathematics for Young Engineers, 

i2mo, *i 00 

Howe, G. Mathematics for the Practical Man i2mo, *i 25 



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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 19 

Howorth, J. Repairing and Riveting Glass, China and Earthen- 
ware 8vo, paper, *o 50 

Hubbard, E. The Utilization of Wood-waste 8vo, *2 50 

Hubner, J. Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable and Fibrous 

Materials. (Outlines of Industrial Chemistry.) .... *5 00 

Hudson, O. F. Iron and Steel. (Outlines of Industrial 

Chemistry.) 8vo, *2 00 

Humphrey, J. C. W. Metallography of Strain. (Metallurgy 

Series) {In Press.) 

Humphreys, A. C. The Business Features of Engineering 

Practice 8vo, *2 50 

Hunter, A. Bridge Work 8vo {In Press.) 

Hurst, G. H. Handbook of the Theory of Color Svo, *2 50 

Dictionary of Chemicals and Raw Products Svo, *3 00 

Lubricating Oils, Fats and Greases Svo, *4 00 

Soaps Svo, *5 00 

Hurst, G. H., and Simmons, W. H. Textile Soaps and Oils, 

Svo, *2 50 

Hurst, H. E., and Lattey, R. T. Text-book of Physics Svo, *3 00 

Also published in Three Parts : 

Vol. I. Dynamics and Heat Svo, *i 25 

Vol. II. Sound and Light Svo, *i 25 

Vol. III. Magnetism and Electricity Svo, *i 50 

Hutchinson, R. W., Jr. Long Distance Electric Power Trans- 
mission i2mo, *3 00 

Hutchinson, R. W., Jr., and Thomas, W. A. Electricity in 

Mining i2mo, 

Hutchinson, W. B. Patents and How to Make Money Out of 

Them. i2mo, i 25 

Hutton, W. S. Steam-boiler Construction Svo, 6 00 

Hutton, W. S. The Works' Manager's Handbook Svo, 6 00 

Hyde, E. W. Skew Arches. (Science Series No. 15.).. .. i6mo, o 50 

Hyde, F. S. Solvents, Oils, Gums and Waxes i2mo, *2 00 

Induction Coils. (Science Series No. 53.) i6mo, o 50 

Ingham, A. E. Gearing. A practical treatise Svo, *2 50 

Ingle, H. Manual of Agricultural Chemistry Svo, *3 00 



20 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Innes, C. H. Problems in Machine Design i2mo, *2 oo 

Air Compressors and Blowing Engines . i2mo, *2 oo 

Centrifugal Pixmps i2mo, *2 oo 

The Fan i2mo, *2 oo 

Ivatts, E. B. Railway Management at Stations 8vo, *2 50 

Jacob, A., and Gould, E. S. On the Designing and Construction 

of Storage Reservoirs. (Science Series No. 6.). .i6mo, 50 
Jannettaz, E. Guide to the Determination of Rocks. Trans. 

by G. W. Plympton i2mo, i 50 

Jehl, F. Manufacture of Carbons 8 vo, *4 00 

Jennings, A. S. Commercial Paints and Painting. (West- 
minster Series.) Bvo, *2 00 

Jennison, F. H. The Manufacture of Lake Pigments 8vo, *3 00 

Jepson, G. Cams and the Principles of their Construction. . . 8vo, * i 50 

Mechanical Drawing 8vo {In Preparation.) 

Jervis-Smith, F. J. Dynamometers Bvo, *3 50 

Jockin, W. Arithmetic of the Gold and Silversmith i2mo, *i 00 

Johnson, J. H. Arc Lamps. (Installation Manuals Series.) 

i2mo, *o 75 
Johnson, T. M. Ship Wiring and Fitting. (Installation 

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Johnson, W. McA. The Metallurgy of Nickel {In Preparation.) 

Johnston, J. F. W., and Cameron, C. Elements of Agricultural 

Chemistry and Geology i2mo, 2 60 

Joly, J. Radioactivity and Geology i2mo, *3 00 

Jones, H. C. Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity 

i2mo, *2 00 
New Era in Chemistry i2mo, *2 00 

Jones, J. H. Tinplate Industry 8vo, *3 00 

Jones, M. W. Testing Raw Materials Used in Paint i2mo, *2 00 

Jordan, L. C. Practical Railway Spiral lamo, Leather, *i 50 

Joynson, F. H. Designing and Construction of Machine Gear- 
ing 8vo, 2 00 

Juptner, H. F. V. Siderology: The Science of Iron 8vo, *5 00 

Kapp, G. Alternate Current Machinery. (Science Series No. 

96.) i6mo, o 50 



I). VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 21 

Keim, A. W. Prevention of Dampness in Buildings . t . .. .8vo, *2 oo 
Keller, S. S. Mathematics for Engineering Students. 

i2mo, half leather, 

Algebra and Trigonometry, with a Chapter on Vectors. ... *i 75 

Plane and Solid Geometry *i 25 

and Knox, W. F. Analytical Geometry and Calculus . . *2 00 

Kelsey, W. R. Continuous-current Dynamos and Motors. 

8vo, *2 50 
Kemble, W. T., and Underhill, C. R. The Periodic Law and the 

Hydrogen Spectrum 8vo, paper, *o 50 

Kemp, J. F. Handbook of Rocks Svo, *i 50 

Kennedy, A. B. W., and Thurston, R. H. Kinematics of 

Machinery. (Science Series No. 54.) i6mo, o 50 

Kennedy, A. B. W., Unwin, W. C, and Idell, F. E. Compressed 

Air. (Science Series No. 106.) i6mo, o 50 

Kennedy, R. Modern Engines and Power Generators. Six 

Volumes 4ta, 15 00 

Single Volumes each, 3 00 

Electrical Installations. Five Volumes 4to, 15 00 

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Principles of Aeroplane Construction i2mo, *i 50 

Flying Machines; Practice and Design i2mo, *2 00 

Kennelly, A. E. Electro-dynamic Machinery Svo, i 50 

Kent, W. Strength of Materials. (Science Series No. 41.). i6mo, 050 

Kershaw, J. B. C. Fuel, Water and Gas Analysis 8vo, *2 50 

Electrometallurgy. (Westminster Series.) 8vo, *2 00 

The Electric Furnace in Iron and Steel Production.. i2mo, *i 50 

Electro-Thermal Methods of Iron and Steel Production, 

Svo, *3 00 

Kinzbrunner, C. Alternate Current Windings Svo, *i 50 

Continuous Current Armatures 8vo, *i 50 

Testing of Alternating Current Machines Svo, *2 00 

Kirkaldy, W. G. David Kirkaldy's System of Mechanical 

Testing 4to, 10 00 

Kirkbride, J. Engraving for Illustration 8vo, *i 50 

Kirkwood, J. P. Filtration of River Waters 4to, 7 50 

Kirschlce, A. Gas and Oil Engines i2mo. *i 25 



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22 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Klein, J. F. Design of a High speed Steam-engine 8vo, 

Physical Significance of Entropy. 8vo, 

Knight, R.-Adm. A, M. Modern Seamanship 8^o, 

Half Mor. 
Knott, C. G., and Mackay, J. S, Practical Mathematics. . Svo, 

Knox, J. Physico-chemical Calculations i2mo, 

Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. (Chemical Mono- 
graphs.) i2mo, 

Koester, F. Steam-Electric Power Plants 4to, 

Hydroelectric Developments and Engineering 4to, 

Koller, T. The Utilization of Waste Products Svo, 

Cosmetics Svo, *2 50 

Kremann, R. Application of Phpuco Chemical Theory to 
Technical Processes and Manufacturing Methods. 

Trans, by H. E. Potts Svo, *3 00 

Kretchmar, K. Yam and. Warp Sizing Svo, *4 00 

Lallier, E. V. Elementary Manual of the Steam Engine. 

i2mo, *2 00 

Lambert, T. Lead and its Compounds Svo, 

Bone Products and Manures Svo, 

Lamborn, L. L. Cottonseed Products Svo, 

Modern Soaps, Candles, and Glycerin Svo, 

Lamprecht, R. Recovery Work After Pit Fires. Trans, by 

C. Salter Svo, 

Lancaster, M. Electric Cooking, Heating and Cleaning. .Svo, *i 50 
Lanchester, F. W. Aerial Flight. Two Volumes. Svo. 

Vol. I. Aerodynamics *6 00 

Vol. II. Aerodonetics *6 00 

Larner, E. T. Principles of Alternating Currents i2mo, *i 25 

La Rue, B. F. Swing Bridges. (Science Series No, 107.) . i6mo, o 50 
Lassar-Cohn, Dr. Modern Scientific Chemistry. Trans, by M. 

M. Pattison Muir i2mo, *2 00 

Latimer, L. H., Field, C. J., and Howell, J. W. Incandescent 

Electric Lighting. (Science Series No. 57.) i6mo, o 50 

Latta, M. N. Handbook of American Gas-Engineering Practice. 

Svo, *4 50 



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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 23 

American Producer Gas Practice 4to, *6 oo 

Laws, B. C. Stability and Equilibrium of Floating Bodies.Svo, *3 50 
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McGibbon, W. C. Indicator Diagrams for Marine Engineers, 

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Industrial Alcohol 8vo, *3 00 

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Trans, by H. E. Schenck Svo, i 00 

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and H. Robson Svo, *2 50 

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Milroy, M. E. W. Home Lace -making i2mo, *i od 

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Mitchell, C. F. and G. A. Building Construction and Draw- 
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8vo, *2 00 
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i2mo, *i 50 

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and Parsons, C. L. Elements of Mineralogy 8vo, *2 50 

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Series.) i6mo, o 50 

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Newall, J. W. Drawing, Sizing and Cutting Bevel-gears . . 8 vo, i 50 
Newbiging, T. Handbook for Gas Engineers and Managers, 

8vo, *6 50 

Nicol, G. Ship Construction and Calculations 8vo, *4 50 

Nipher, F. E. Theory of Magnetic Measurements i2mo, i 00 

Nisbet, H. Grammar of Textile Design 8vo, *3 00 

Nolan, H. The Telescope. (Science Series No. 51.) i6mo, o 50 

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Ormsby, M. T. M. Surveying i2mo, i 50 

Oudin, M. A. Standard Polyphase Apparatus and Systems . .8vo, *3 00 

Owen, D. Recent Physical Research 8vo, *i 50 

Fakes, W. C. C, and Nankivell, A. T. The Science of Hygiene. 

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Jr 8vo, *4 00 

Pamely, C. Colliery Manager's Handbook 8vo, *io 00 

Parker, P. A. M. The Control of Water 8vo, *5 00 

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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 29 

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Petit, R. How to Build an Aeroplane. Trans, by T. 0*B. 

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Part I. Machine Drafting Svo, *i 25 

Part II. Empirical Design (In Preparation.) 



*2 


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*2 


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32 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

Raymond, E. B. Alternating Current Engineering. .. ..i2mo, 
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Redgrove, H. S. Experimental Mensuration i2mo, 

Redwood, B. Petroleum. (Science Series No. 92.) . .. .i6mo. 

Reed, S. Turbines Applied to Marine Propulsion 8vo, 

Reed's Engineers' Handbook 8vo, 

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Reinhardt, C. W. Lettering for Draftsmen, Engineers, and 

Students oblong 4to, boards, i 00 

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Reiser, N. Faults in the Manufacture of Woolen Goods. Trans. 

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Renwick, W. G. Marble and Marble Working Svo, 5 00 

Reynolds, 0., and Idell, F. E. Triple Expansion Engines. 

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Rhead, G. F. Simple Structural Woodwork i2mo, *i 00 

Rhodes, H. J. Art of Lithography Svo, 3 50 

Rice, J. M., and Johnson, W. W. A New Method of Obtaining 

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Richards, W. A., and North, H. B. Manual of Cement Testing. *i 50 

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Richardson, S. S. Magnetism and Electricity i2mo, 

Rideal, S. Glue and Glue Testing Svo, 

Rimmer, E. J. Boiler Explosions Svo, 

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Reinforced Concrete Bridges i2mo, 

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*3 


50 


*2 


00 


*4 


00 


*i 


75 


*2 


50 


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00 



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50 


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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 33 

Roberts, F. C. Figure of the Earth. (Science Series No. 79.) 

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Roberts, J., Jr. Laboratory Work in Electrical Engineering 

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Robertson, L. S. Water-tube Boilers 8vo, *2 00 

Robinson, J. B. Architectural Composition 8vo, 

Robinson, S. W. Practical Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels. 

(Science Series No. 24.) i6nio, 

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Wrought Iron Bridge Members. (Science Series No. 

60.) i6mo, 

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Roebling, J. A. Long and Short Span Railway Bridges . . folio, 
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Industrial Chemistry Svo, 

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i6mo, o 50 
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Rollins, W. Notes on X-Light Svo, 

RoUinson, C. Alphabets Oblong i2mo. 

Rose, J. The Pattern-makers' Assistant Svo, 

Key to Engines and Engine-running i2mo. 

Rose, T. K. The Precious Metals. (Westminster Series.) . . Svo, 
Rosenhain, W. Glass Manufacture. (Westminster Series.). Svo, 
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Series.) Svo, 

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Rothery, G. C, and Edmonds, H. 0. The Modem Laundry. 

2 vols 4to, leather, 

Rouillion, L. The Economics of Manual Training Svo, 

Rowan, F. J. Practical Physics of the Modem Steam-boiler.Svo, 
and Idell, F. E. Boiler Incmstation and Corrosion. 

(Science Series No. 27.) i6mo, 

Roxburgh, W. General Foundry Practice. (Westminster 

Series Svo, 

Ruhmer, E. Wireless Telephony. Trans, by J. Erskine- 

Murray Svo, 



*I 


25 


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2 


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50 


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25 


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25 


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34 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 
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Sabine, R. History and Progress of the Electric Telegraph. i2mo, 

Sanford, P. G. Nitro-explosives 8vo, 

Saunders, C. H. Handbook of Practical Mechanics . . i6mo, 

leather, 

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Scheele, C. W. Chemical Essays Svo, 

Scheithauer, W. Shale Oils and Tars Svo, 

Schellen, H. Magneto-electric and Dynamo -electric Machines 

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Schidrowitz, P. Rubber, Its Production and Uses Svo, 

Schindler, K, Iron and Steel Construction Works i2mo, 

Schmall, C. N. First Course in Analytic Geometry, Plane and 

Solid i2mo, half leather, *i 75 

Schmall, C. N., and Schack, S. M. Elements of Plane Geometry 

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Schmeer, L. Flow of Water Svo, 

Schumann, F. A Manual of Heating and Ventilation. 

i2mo, leather, 

Schwartz, E. H. L. Causal Geology Svo, 

Schweizer, V., Distillation of Resins Svo, 

Scott, W. W. Qualitative Chemical Analysis. A Laboratory 

Manual Svo *i 50 

Scribner, J. M. Engineers* and Mechanics' Companion. 

i6mo, leather, i 50 
Scudder, H. Electrical Conductivity and Ionization Constants 
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Searle, A. B. Modem Brickmaking Svo, 

Cement, Concrete and Bricks Svo, 

Searle, G. M. " Sumners' Method." Condensed and Improved. 

(Science Series No. 124.) Svo. 

Seaton, A. E. Manual of Marine Engineering Svo, 

Seaton, A. E., and Rounthwaite, H. M. Pocket-book of Marine 

Engineering i6mo, leather, 

Seeligmann, T., Torrilhon, G. L., and Falconnet, H. India 

Rubber and Gutta Percha. Trans, by J. G. Mcintosh 

Svo, 



*I 


25 


*3 


00 


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50 


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50 


*3 


50 



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50 


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D. VAN NOSTKAND COMPANY^S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 35 

Seidell, A. Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances . 8vo, *3 oo 

Seligman, R. Aluminum. (Metallurgy Series) (In Press.) 

Sellew, W. H. Steel Rails 4to, *i2 50 

• Railway Maintenance (In Press.) 

Senter, G. Outlines of Physical Chemistry i2mo, *i 75 

Textbook of Inorganic Chemistry i2mo, *i 75 

Sever, G. F. Electric Engineering Experiments .... 8vo, boards, *i 00 
— — and Townsend, F. Laboratory and Factory Tests in Elec- 
trical Engineering 8vo, *2 50 

Sewall, C. H. Wireless Telegraphy Svo, *2 00 

Lessons in Telegraphy i2mo, *i 00 

Sewell, T. The Construction of Dynamos Svo, *3 00 

Sexton, A. H. Fuel and Refractory Materials i2mo, *2 50 

Chemistry of the Materials of Engineering i2mo, *2 50 

Alloys (Non- Ferrous) Svo, *3 00 

The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel Svo, *6 50 

Seymour, A. Modem Printing Inks Svo, *2 00 

Shaw, H. S. H. Mechanical Integrators. (Science Series No. 

83.) i6mo, o 50 

Shaw, S. History of the Staffordshire Potteries Svo, *2 00 

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Shaw, W. N. Forecasting Weather Svo, *3 50 

Sheldon, S., and Hausmann, E. Direct Current Machines. . Svo, *2 50 

Alternating-current Machines. Svo, *2 50 

Electric Traction and Transmission Engineering Svo, *2 50 

Shields, J. E. Notes on Engineering Construction i2mo, i 50 

Shreve, S. H. Strength of Bridges and Roofs Svo, 3 50 

Shunk, W. F. The Field Engineer i2mo, mor., 2 50 

Simmons, W. H., and Appleton, H. A. Handbook of Soap 

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Simmons, W. H., and Mitchell, C. A. Edible Fats and Oils . *3 00 

Svo, *3 00 

Simpson, G. The Naval Constructor i2mo, mor., *5 00 

Simpson, W. Foundations Svo (In Press.) 

Sinclair, A. Development of the Locomotive Engine. 

Svo, half leather, 5 00 
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Svo, *2 00 



36 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY'S SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 

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leather, i2mo, *2 50 

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Smith, C. F. Practical Alternating Currents and Testing. .8vo, *2 50 

Practical Testing of Dynamos and Motors Svo, *2 00 

Smith, F. E. Handbook of General Instruction for Mechanics. 

i2mo, I 50 

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Snow, W. G. Pocketbook of Steam Heating and Ventilation. 

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Specht, G. J., Hardy, A. S., McMaster, J. B., and Walling. Topo- 
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00 


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00 


*3 


00 


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Webber, W. H. Y. Town Gas. (Westminster Series.) Svo, *2 00 

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Weston, E. B. Loss of Head Due to Friction of V/ater hi Pipes 

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Zeuner, A. Technical Thermodynamics. Trans, by J. F, 

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